Vin 








GIFT OF 
Dr, Horace Ivie 







































































— 














Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2008 with funding from 
Microsoft Corporation 


http://www, archive.org/details/allengreenoughslOOallerich 





ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S 


LATIN GRAMMAR 


Pa 


& 


FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 


FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR 


Webised and Enlarged 
BY 
JAMES BRADSTREET GREENOUGH 


ASSISTED BY 


GEORGE L. KITEREDGE, : 


Boston, U.S. A., AnD LonpoNn 
GINN AND. COMPANY 
1897 


Reo? 


GIFT OF 
Yr. Horace L vie. 


CopyricHT, 1888, BY 


J. B. GREENOUGH anp J. H. ALLEN. 


ALL RiGHTs RESERVED. 


EDUCATION DEPT: 


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TypocraPpny sy J. S. Cusuinc & Co., Boston, U.S.A. 





PrEsswork BY GINN & Co., Boston, U.S.A. 


PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION. 





THE Publishers have again taken advantage of the opportunity 
offered by the necessary recasting of the plates of this book to 
cause such improvements to be made in it as the advance of gram- 
matical knowledge and the experience of the schoolroom have shown 
to be advisable. The revising editors have endeavored to simplify 
and make plain the statement of principles, so far as could be done 
without sacrificing scientific correctness; but no concession has been 
made to the prevalent mechanical’ method of treating the science of 
language: Many additional explanations and suggestions have been 
made in the text and foot-notes, for the benefit of teachers and 
advanced scholars. The number and range of examples have been 
very considerably increased; and it is hoped that scholars will find 
no grammatical usage in their ordinary reading that is not provided 
for in the statements laid down. 

The treatment of the formation of words has been much extended ; 
and new light, it is hoped, has been shed upon this difficult and ever- 
advancing branch of the science. In cases where comparative philol- 
ogy is concerned, the editors have endeavored to set down the sure 
results of the so-called ‘*‘ New Grammar,” but have been conservative 
about accepting doctrines which, though likely to be true, cannot 
yet be regarded as fully proved, and are certainly not universally 
accepted. In conformity with the modern practice all naturally long 
vowels, known to be such, including those whose natural quantity 
is concealed by position, have been marked throughout; but many 
suspected to be long have been left unmarked, where the evidence 
did not seem sufficiently convincing. 

Some new doctrines will be found in regard to the order of words, 
which, though not generally accepted, will, the editors are persuaded, 
meet with more general approval, the better they are applied and 
understood. This subject has only just begun to receive the con- 
sideration it deserves. 

No changes of any account have been made in the numbering of 
sections. ifn 

In conclusion, the editors hope that they have made still more 
plain some of the devious ways of Latin grammar, and feel that if 
their new efforts meet with anything like the same favor that has 
been shown to the book heretofore, they shall be amply rewarded. 


924426 


PREFACE TO THE EDITION OF 1877. 





THE editors have taken advantage of the re-casting of the plates 
to make some improvements in the present edition, which have 
grown upon their hands, until in fact a thorough revision of the 
book has been made. 

The principal changes are the following: 1. The matter of each 
part has been cast in chapters, with sub-divisions by numbered 
paragraphs. 2. A considerable expansion has been given to several 
portions, especially to those on Phonetic Changes and the Forma- 
tion of Words ; inflectional forms have been more carefully exhibited, 
and sections have been added on the Syntax of Pronouns and Parti- 
cles. 3. Strictly philological matter, not intended for class use, has 
been put in the form of marginal notes. 4. The several topics of 
the Syntax are introduced by brief prefatory notes, suggesting what 
we consider to be the true theory of the constructions; these are 
not designed for class use, and are not included in the numbered 
sections. 5. Some important additions and illustrations have been 
given in the Prosody. The substance of the book remains as be- 
fore. The form of expression, however, has been carefully revised ; 
and a few sections have been transferred to a different connection. 

The proof-sheets have been submitted to several experienced teach- 
ers, who have generously aided us by their criticism, and have con- 
tributed many valuable practical suggestions. The editors have 
pleasure in acknowledging, also, their special indebtedness to Pro- 
fessor Caskie Harrison, of the University of the South, Sewanee, 
Tenn., whose corréspondence has made a very full running com- 
mentary extending over the greater portion of the book, including 
all the Syntax, with copious discussion of numerous incidental 
topics. His notes have been of the greatest service to them; have 
sometimes modified their views and constantly supplemented them; 
have urged important points upon their attention, and: have not 
seldom suggested valuable improvements through the very antago- 
nism of opposing doctrine. Material less easy to specify in detail, 
but not less valuable or welcome, has been received from Professor 
M. W. Humphreys, of Nashville, from the principals of the acade- 
mies at Andover, Exeter, and Quincy, and from others, to whom cor- | 
dial thanks are due for the interest they have testified in the work. 


CAMBRIDGE, September 25, 1877. 


NOTE. 


For the convenience of those who may wish to follow up more 
minutely the study of the subjects treated in this book, a list of 
important works is given below. 


ALLEN, F. D.: Remnants of Early Latin, 
AMERICAN Yournal of Philology, Vols. I. to VIII. and continued. 


Bopp: Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, etc. [Indo-European lan- 

guages.| 4 vols. 3ded. Berlin: 1868-70. 

The original standard work on Comparative Forms. Later researches have 
corrected some erroneous details. English translation (poor). London: 1862. 
The best form is a French translation, with Notes and Introductions by Michel 
Bréal. Paris: 1866. 


BEZZENBERGER: Bettrége sur Kunde der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen. 
I-13. 
BRAMBACH: Lateinitche Orthographic. 1868. 


BRUGMANN: Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik. Vol.1. Strassburg: 
1886; Vol. II., 1889-92. 


Greek Grammar. See “ Miiller’s Handbuch.” 
CorssEN: Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der Lateinischen Sprache. 


2vols, 2ded. Letpzig: 1868. 


The greatest work on Latin a/one, treating the language in reference to its own 
individual development, particularly as to the sounds (Lautlehre). Must be used 
with caution, 





Curtius, G.: Grundzilge der Griechischen Etymologie. 3d ed. Leipzig: 
1869. 
Treats of Latin only by comparison, but is one of the most valuable works on 
the general subject. 
Erlauterungen zu meiner Griechischen Schul-grammati®. 2d ed. 
Prag: 1870. English translation (“ Elucidations”). London: 1870. 
Notes giving in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of the 
doctrine of forms. — : 
Das Griechische Verbum. 


De.Brick: Das Conjunctiv und Optativ, im Sanskrit und Griechischen. 
Halle: 1871. 
Origin of the Moods treated scientifically, Should be read in connection with 
a notice in“ North American Review,” October, 1871, and “ Analysis of the Latin 
Subjunctive,” by J. B, Greenough (Cambridge: 1870). 
Ablativ, Localis, Instrumentalis im Indischen, etc. Berlin: 1867. 
Origin of the various Ablative constructions, 











vi Note. 


Fick: Vergleichendes Wérterbuch der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen. Gt 
tingen: 1870, 

A Dictionary of Roots and Words supposed to have existed in the Indo-European 
tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the yarious languages, It 
can be used without a knowledge of German. No such book, however, is safe to 
use without careful study of the laws of consonant and vowel changes. 
jared Essays, Philological ana Critical. New York (Holt & Williams): 

1073. 


HALE, W. G.: Cum Constructions. [Cornell Studies.} 

The Sequence of Tenses. 

HOFFMAN: Die Construction der Lateinischen Zeitpartikeln. Vienna: 1860, 
{ Pamphlet.]} 

MARX: Lilfsbitchlein fiir die Aussprache, etc. Berlin: 1883. 

MEYER, G.: Griechische Grammatik. 2d ¢d. Leipzig: 188s. 


MULLER: Handbuch der Klassischen Alterthums-wissenschaft. Vol. 11. Griech- 
ische und Lateiniscne Sprachwissenschaft (by Brugmann, Stolz and Schmalz, 
and others). 


NEUE: Formenichre der Lateinischen Sprache. Stuttgart: 1875-92. 
Storehouse of all Latin forms, 1200 pages, containing the result of late textual 

criticism. The standard work, 

PAPILLON: 4 Manual of Comparative Philology, as applied to the Tltustra- 
tion of Greek and Latin Infiections. Oxford: 1876. 

Behind the times, but a convenient synopsis of the doctrine of forms. 

Rosy, H.J.: 4 Grammar of the Latin Language, from Plautus to Suetonius. 
London and New York (Macmillan): Vol. L, 1871; Vol. IL, 1873. 
Someerrorshavebeen pointed out in the “ North American Review,” January, 1872 

SCHLEICHER: Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo-Ger- 
manischen Sprachen. 4thed. 1876. 

Antiquated, but indispensable. 


SEELMANN, E.: Die Aussprache des Latein. Heilbronn: 1885. 
SIEVERS, E.: Grundsiige der Phonetik. 30 ed. Leipzig: 1885. 


VANICEK, A.: Etymologisches Worterbuch der Lateinischen Sprache. Leipzig: 
1874. 
Suggestive, but to be used with caution. 

WESTPHAL: Metrik der Griechen. 2d ed. 1867. 2 vols. 


The great authority on the metrical systems of the ancients, with full lite and 
musical illustration, A convenient summary, with some modifications, will be found 
in SCHMIDT'S Rhythmik und Metrik, now translated by Prof. J. W. WHITE, and 
published by the publishers of this book. 


WHEELER, B. I.: Analogy and its Scope in Language. [Cornell Studies.} 
WHITNEY: Sanskrit Grammar. Leipzig: 1879. 


The best grammar of the Sanskrit, without some knowledge of which language 
it is difficult to pursue the study of comparative grammar to advantage, 


ZEITSCHRIFT fir vergleichende Sprachforschung. Edited by Dr. A. Kunn. 
Vol. I., etc. Berlin: 1851 and subsequent years. 
Indispensable to correct theories of individual investigators. 





CONTENTS. 





PART I.— ETYMOLOGY. 


CHAPTER 1. Letters and Sounds . . .. 


Alphabet; Classification, Phonetic Variations. 
Pronunciation; Quantity and Accent 


CHAPTER II].— Words and their Forms . 


Inflection; RootandStem. . .. . 
ape Paris of Speech oe) 3 weit hs 
Gender, Number, and Case. . . . « 


CHAPTER III.— Declension of Nouns . 


General Rules of Declension . . 
First. Declension. «66 6. <<. 6 tea 
Second Declension .....- 
Third Declension: J/ute Stems . 
Liguid Stems 
Vowel Stems. . . «© « 
Lrregular Nouns 
Greek Forms . se bernie 
Rules of Gender . . . 
Lists of Nouns. . 
Fourth Deciension: ..\. 0: fs. 8 
Pitta Declension: :.). 6 sieve eee 
Defective and Variable Nouns. . . . 
Proper Names... 0). 6s oe) ww as 


CHAPTER IV.— Adjectives . 2 « 0 «© «© « « 


First and Second Declensions. . . 
timed Deciension. “< .. 6 ee 
RRO ane 53 oe gs 
RONEN cas <a as ge! by RCE ae ee 


Viii Contents. 


, PAGE 
CHAP TER V. aaT4 Pr OnHOUNS « e « e e . ” ° s . 2 ‘ e 63-72 
Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demonstrative . . . . 63-68 


Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite . ..... . +. 68-71 
Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) . . . ... «2. 72 


CRP RE Vda oe FOIE wg sane a ee eae ead 


Inflection: 6.8) = s. = BEL RS SoS a a ee Pa 
Signification: Voice, MGod: WODSOS Clay wil wc iae er = ae 
Perenal NCIS ee we a te Pa ee ee es Pa ey TS 
POnnS S. Vero-E ndings ss 6 a es aw Meee ee VT 
Ne VEE SAO ws a ne eh ge te 8 ee 

The Three Stems . . . Pi aie Fn ke A | 
Regular Verb: The Four Gosideations eer ere ie 
Formation of the Three Stems . . . . 86-90 

synopsis:of the Verb... ese) 6) ot: ei Sel | QO 

SOCIAL FOKINE 6 ee. we we tate ce oe Se 

Pirst Conjugation 2c. 26 Soe) ses; 3 098 GS 

Periphrastic Conjugations . . . . .. . 93 

Second Conjugation. . . . . . . « 96-98 

Third Conjugation . - . . .« « « « 98-103 

Fourth Conjugation . . . . . . . 104-106 

Biengnent: Verbs: 6s og eet a Oo es a a cel ROGIOS 
Irregulat Verbs. .°% s. « 0 2 0 ‘s+ 6 0 4 ¢ ) OQ-114 
Picthouee Verte = 4. aac conte hee oe ok ee 114-117 
Impersonal Verbs. . . oo se PEF AIS 
Note on the Origin and History of Verb- Fo orms . . . IIg-12! 


CHAPTER VII. —~ Particles. Suiting eo a a es a 1199 


OVENS yy kw eg wre wets fie a gp goes = Eee ae 
PRCPOSIIONS <0 6 8 A ee ee ee a ease 
ROEIICAIONIS C5 ys a 9 ow ee ga oe eee ee BS aH Tt 30 
PCI CHONS ois ae eso Sn ee See eee 830 


CHAPTER VIII.— Formation of Words. . ... « « « 140-162 


Roots and Stems . . . eR ah ae ae tie es Rae 
Suffixes: Primary ; Siaitioant enllings s0 oe | EZISI4G 
Derivation of Nouns and Adjectives. . . . . + « 143-156 
Derivation Of Verbes oso i a ae os a RETO 
Compyund Words. yi ue Se ea a ee Ge 


Contents. 


PART II.—SYNTAX. 


foeducicy New SO eR 


CHAPTER i: The Sentence bt Vk va a Ce a eae s 


Definitions: Subject and Predicate; Modification. . . 

Agreement? the Four Concords: .. 5; 20 «8m See 

Nouns: Apposition; Predicate Agreement. . . . . 
ADJECTIVES: Rules of Agreement ..... . 
special Uses. .0. ot vestige dae 

PRONOUNS: Personal and Demonstrative . .. . « 
py as ma lie i gm cape ase pe a aga 

CRATE, 8 ie ba ek et oe 


RENN as es ee ee 
BROT SOS og ei ek era ae ce ee 
ATOR HA MRROOT tock eee Oe eS 


VERBS: Subject, Incomplete Sentences . . Cat 
PARTICLES: Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives a ee 
CUBSTIONS  o.c0 oo ee Ce 6 ei alee wy eee 


CHAPTER II.— Construction of Cases... . oe 


Fetroductory NOte. . + <6) e'0) eo eee See 
GENITIVE: With Nouns:. . 2s ‘s 2 «6 4 
Possessive . ee ee a 
Material, Suck . 
FAURE 6 Cs 
Objective . a ater re 
Wit Adjectives: aos) we Gee es 
With Verbs . Rey See Linge ge Wea 
Remembering and Forgetting . 
Accusing, 860g 6 8 a. 5 
Feeling. -4' +. 


Interest and Réfert: ethos Verbs, 216, 217 


Peculiar Genitives: Exclamatory, ete. . . 
DATIVE: Indirect Object with Transitives . . . . 
Indirect Object with Intransitives. . . . . 
With Compounds) vasa sea i 
Of Possession; of Agency. . . « .-« « 
Of Purpose or ‘Bad; Dative with sto thee : 
Of Reference; Ethical i ; 


1x 


PAGE 


163, 164 


165-204 


165-170 

170 
170-172 

172 
174-177 
178-181 
181-184 
184-186 
186-191 
I9I, 192 
193, 194 
194-196 
199-201 
201-204 


205-273 

205 
206-211 
pen Sag 
» 208 
209, 210 
ere} 
211-213 
213-217 
213, 214 

214 

214 


ieee 
219-221 


‘221-225 


225-227 
227-229 
229-233 
233, 234 


x Contents. 
ACCUSATIVE: Direct Object . 


Idiomatic and Special Uses . 

V OGRTIVE 6 ip el pect ee e s 
ABLATIVE: its Several Uses . . 
1. Of Separation and Privation 
Source, Material, Cause . 

Of Agent ; of Comparison 


2. Of Manner, Means, Instrument, Accompaniment, 
Of Difference, Quality, Price, Specification 


3. Locative: Special Uses. . 
Ablative Absolute . . . 

MIME AND. PLACE <2 % <2.<<. 
USE OF PREPOSITIONS . « « « 


CHAPTER III:— Syntax of the Verb . 
Note onthe Moods .... . 
Moons: Indicative. . <6. 

Subjunctive: General Use 


Hortatory . 

2 Optative . 

- Deliberative 
Imperative. =... . 
ipnnlVe: - Guess 


TENSES: Introductory Note . 
Tenses of Continued Action . 
Present 


Imperfect (20). assed 
RUIEG fF. Can a eee 

Tenses of Completed Action . 
Perfect... 


Peipertect 95" .25\5ann 
Future Perfect... . 
Epistolary Tenses . 
Tenses of the Subjunctive . 
Sequence of Tenses. . . « 
Tenses of the Infinitive. . . 
Participles : Se tetree 
Distinctions of Tense . 
Adjective Use . . .« 
Predicate Use . « © 


° 


Cognate Accusative ; Two Accusatives 


PAGE 
235-237 
238-242 
242-244 
. 244 


-- 244, 245 


245-247 
247-250 
251-253 
253-256 
256-259 

260 
260-262 
263-279 
270-273 


274-395 
274 
275, 276 
276 
277, 278 
279 
280 
280-283 
283 
29g! 
291 
291-294 
294-296 
296 
296 
296-298 _ 
298 
et 2G 
299 
299 
300-304 
394 
306-314 
» ogg 
+ 3-308 
o. ge 


Contents. 


Future Participle . . 

Gerundive. . . . « 
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 
SUPINES . « « 


CHAPTER I1V.— Conditional Sentences . 


Introductory Note 

Protasis and Apodosis . 
Classification of Forms 

Simple Conditions . .... + 
Future Conditions . . .. . « 
Conditions Contrary to Fact 
General Conditions . 

Condition Disguised. 

Condition Omitted . . 

Potential Subjunctive 

Subjunctive of Modesty 

Verbs of Necessity . 

Complex Conditions. 

Particles of Comparison 
Concessive Clauses . . 
Provisd. 6 3 » » : 
Use of Si and its Giunscuude : 


Conditional Relative Clauses 
Clauses of Purpose . . 
Clauses of Result . . . 
Clauses of Characteristic. . 
Causal Clauses «© « « «© « 
Relations of Time. . . . 
Postquam, etc. . « -« 
Cum Temporal ... 
Cum Causal: 24-4 


CHAPTER V. — Dependent Constructions . 
RELATIVE CLAUSES: Introductory Note 


Antequam, Priusquam . 
Dum, Ddnec, and Quoad 


SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES: Introductory Note 


Infinitive Clauses . . . -« 


Clauses of.Purpose. . . «6 « «© « 


xi 
PAGE 
Ate nie. |e 
ee +983 
a 9 ee 
oa) 318 


+ 320-339 
3 es ae 

321 
o “oS 5a2 

324 
See ae 
aes. 39 
2 ei 

339 

332 

332 
oa, BSR 
o & 333 
iy eee I 
oe 334 
Sipe. ae 
=) 330 
tote ae 


« 339-368 


339 

> 339 

+ 340 

- 343 
346 

os - 348 
> © 349 
< ws gge 
ie 352 
a)" B53 
- © 354 
- « 354 
«ORS 
oe ee6 
ee: SOs 


xii Contents. 


Clauses-0f Resiit g-4)et ie: td Ass 
Clauses with Quod. . ..... 
Indirect Questions. ... : 
INDIRECT DiscouRSK: Introductory ote : 
Formal Indirect Discourse 
Subordinate Clauses ... . 
Tenses in Indirect Discourse 
Conditions, Questions, Commands 
Informal Indirect Discourse . 
Integral Clauses. . « + «© « « + 
IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX. . .. . 


CHAPTER VI.— Arrangement. . . « 


ee re ah a) San Roe ot Se ee 
special Rules: eh a 56 ee ee we 
Structive of the Penod S665 wwe kes 


PART III.— PROSODY. 


CHAPTER I. — Quantity o e @ of e e e . . 


Introductory Note . . . .%% . . «+ 
General Rules of Quantity . ..... 
Quantity of Final Syllables . . . . . . 
Quantity of Penultimates. . .... . 


CHAPTER II. = Rhythm e . . ° . e e ° e 


Measures of Rhythm: Feet . . . . « . 
‘The Musical Accent-. 0°39: 6:6), 0- 


CHAPTER III. a Versification ° ° e e ° e e 


TOM TEO Se ao ee, oe = ae ae aes 
Dactylic Verse: Hexameter . . . « . 


Elegiac Stanza; Other DactyNic Verses 


Iambic Verse: Zyrimeter . ' 
Other Iambic Maines “eae 
A TOCNRIC VETSE:: 6:06. a Soi can evoee ee 
Mixed Measures -6 6s 6 8. 25 sa Se 
Logacsdic Verse: p06 hice Se/i8”, @oxe oe 
Metres of Horace iis 6 Sn 


Index to Metres of Horace . . . . « « + 


PAGE 
ee). 302 
- 366 
aeaet S07 
- + 369 
otsbes BIO 
372 

373 

374 

° 379 
: 380 
pine Sal 
386-393 
386 

a: 302 

» 392 

» 394-401 
* + 394 
> « 394 
« + 396 
+ 398-401 
- 402-406 
» 402-405 
ace OG 
+ 407-424 
+ 407 
408 

- 410, 411 
aay & 
eu 495 
oe: 4h3 
ee 4ae 
~ 415, 416 
- 417-421 
ree 


een 


Contents. xiii 

. PAGE 

CCPL AING POC yoy Ps eo Wes ee a 8 aa 
DRTRATIOUUS 2060 a 6 ORS ae Ow Oe ak iw 8 eee 
SUaSty PYOSOGY ois oo Ne 6 ee el aa yet ee te ee 


MISCELLANEOUS: Reckoning of Time. . . . . . «© 2 « «© 425 
Measures of Value (ck Use a ol ee ee 
ADDPEVIAONS 686 6a a eo ak ee: 
Glossary of Terms . . + « « + «© « «429-432 


APPENDIX: Latin and Kindred Tongues . . . . . . « 433-438 
Principal Roman Writers . . . . « + « « + 438,439 


Sere OR Veen gil Se as Ca a ee ee 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS . « + + + + «© © «© © 449ff 











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LATIN GRAMMAR is usually discussed under three heads: 1. Etymol- 
ogy; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Etymology treats of the form of separate 
words, as either written or spoken; Syntax of their function when joined 
together as parts of the sentence; Prosody of their arrangement in 
metrical composition. 





‘ 
PART FIRST.— ETYMOLOGY. 


—_190—_- 


CuHapTerR |[.— Letters and Sounds. 


Alphabet. 


The Latin Alphabet, as the language is usually written, 
is the same as the English (which, in fact, was borrowed 
from it), except that it has no w. 


Properly, it consists, however, of only twenty-three letters: a (called 
ah), b (be [bay]), ¢ (ke), a (de), e (e[eh]), f (ef), g (ge), h (Ka), 
i (ee), k (4a) [see § 6], 1 (e7), m (em), n (ez), O (0), p (Ze), g (Koo), 
r (er), 8 (ess), t (¢e), u, Vv (00), x (éx), y (# Graeca?), z (zeta). Of 
these, y and z were added in Cicero’s time to express the correspond- 
ing sounds (v, ¢) in borrowed Greek words (cf. Cic. N. D. ii. 93). 
i and u (v) have a twofold value, which is often in modern writing 
indicated by a double form: i,j; u,v. See § 4. 


Classification of the Letters. 
1. The letters are divided, with reference to their sounds, 
into Vowels (/itterae vocal@s) and Consonants (/itterae con- 


sonantés). Two vowels united so as to express one sound 
are called a Diphthong. 


2 Etymology: Letters and Seuss. [$$ 1, 2. 


a. The VOWELS are a, e, i, 0, u, y. The rest of the letters are Con- 
sonants. The Diphthongs are ae (2), au, ei, eu, oe (ce), ui, and in 
Early Latin a ai, oi, and ou. 

NOTE. “3 Alp the divisions: of the: eletters apply really to the sounds which the 
letters represent; but’as? th> sdufds i in Latin very nearly correspond to the letters, 
no reglhcérifyelont need aris¢ if both are spoken of without distinction. 

b. “‘Wowelbsive: Ope (a, 0», Medial (e, u), or Close (i), according to 
the position of the organs in pronouncing them. 

NOTE.— The vowel a, as in father, is the most open (Z.e. the organs are least 
constrained in pronouncing it), Starting from this sound, and narrowing the mouth 


sidewise, at the same time raising the middle of the tongue, we come through 
several gradations not always recognized, but no doubt 


A always more or less existent in speech, to the sound of 
4g e (as in e4?) andi (ee, aszin machine), This sound, 
f(hat) “G (aw) if enunciated rapidly with a following vowel, passes 


Se oa. a (not) into the sound of English y (consonant). If, on the 
« other hand, the mouth is narrowed up and down, and 
ea —_——" (09) at the same time the back of the tongue is raised, we 
come in the same manner to O and u (00 in fool). If, 
starting with O, we contract in the first manner, we come through a common 
German sound C 5) to e. If, starting from u, we do the same, we come to French 
u, German ti, Greek v, and Latin y. And this sound, in turn, approaches i. 
These processes may be represented in a vowel scale as above. 


2. CONSONANTS. —a@. p, b, ¢ (k), q, g, t, d, as also ch and 
th, are called Mutes (Explosives, Momentary sounds). 

These are produced by an entire stoppage of the breath and a 
subsequent explosion. They are classified as follows : — 

I. p, ¢ (k), q, t, s, are called Surds (tenués). 


These are without vocal tone. 


42. b, g, a, z, are called Sonants (smedae). 


These are accompanied by a slight vocal tone. 


3. ch and th are called Aspirates. | 

In these a breath follows the explosion. They are found chiefly in 
words borrowed from the Greek. ph, which also was borrowed from 
the Greek, probably was never sounded as an aspirate in Latin. 


6. m and n are called Nasals. 


These are pronounced with the same position of the organs as b and 
d, except that the nasal passage is opened instead of closed. A third 
nasal, n adulterinum (like x in zxk), corresponding in the same way to 
g, existed in the language, but had no separate sign. 


§§ 3-5.] Classification of the Letters. | 3 


3. From the organs of speech chiefly used in the utter- 
ance of the mutes and nasals they are divided into Labials 
(pronounced with the lips), Palatals (with the palate), and 
Linguals (with the tongue). | 

Their relations are seen in the following table : — 


Surp. SoNaAnT. ASPIRATE. NASAL. 
Labial. p b wanting m 
Palatal. c(kK),q g ch n (as in z#k) 
Lingual. t d th n (as in rent) 


a. Other useful special classes of sounds are distinguished as : — 
Liquids: 1, m,n, Y. : 
Fricatives (Spirants): f, ph, th (not aspirate, as in ¢#iz), h, 8, 2. 
Sibilants : 8, Z. 
Double Consonants : &% (CS), Z (ds). 
Semi-vowels : i, Vv (see § 4). 


6. his merely a breathing. 


4. SEMI-VOWELS.—i and v (u) before a vowel in the 
same syllable are consonants and have the sound of Eng- 
lish consonant y and w respectively. (Cf. i and u in pzxzon, 
issuing, rapidly pronounced.) They are sometimes called 
Semt- Vowels. 


NOTE 1.— The Latin alphabet had no separate signs for the semi-vowels; but 
used i for both vowel and consonanti, and V or U (without distinction) for both vowel 
and consonant V (u). The character j] was unknown in classical times, and u was 
but a graphic variation. of v. In medizeval Latin j and v came to be used to 
indicate the consonant sounds of i and v (uw), and this usage is often followed by 
modern editors in writing small letters. In writing capitals, however, the forms 
J and U are avoided. Thus iuuenis, iuvenis, or juvenis,— but IVVENIS. 

In this book vowel and consonant i are both represented by the same character, 
i; but V is used for the consonant, u for the vowel sound of v(u). Thus iistus, 
vir, iuvenis. 

NOTE 2,— The English sounds of j and v did not exist in Latin in classical 
times, though consonant V (WU) began no doubt to approach English v in many 
persons’ speech, 

NOTE 3.—In the combinations qu, gu, and sometimes su, u forms a com- 
pound sound with the preceding consonant, and is reckoned neither as a vowel 
nor aconsonant, Thus aqua, anguis, c6nsuétus. (Cf. English guil/, anguish, 
suave.) 


5. The Romans distinguished Long vowels from Short 
in sound, but had no regular characters to express the dif- 


ference. At various times attempts were made to mark 
this distinction, but none came into general use. 


4 Etymology: Letters and Sounds. [s§ 5-8. 


In modern times short vowels are marked thus: 4, €; and long, thus: 
a, €; those that may be pronounced either long or short, thus: 4, &. 
In this book all simple vowels not marked are supposed to be short. 
But final o and i are marked according to their prevailing length or 
shortness, though they sometimes vary from this quantity in poetry. 

NoTE.— Vowels and consonants are not separated by any sharp line from each 
other, but form a continuous scale from the most open vowel (a) to the mutes, for 


which the mouth is entirely closed. The general tendency of phonetic changes in 
language has been from the two extremes towards the middle. 


Early Forms. 


G6. The character ¢ (surd palatal) originally stood for the sonant 
palatal (g). (Hence, a, b, ec, but Alpha, Beta, Gamma.) This force it 
always retained in the abbreviations C. (for Gaius), and Cn. (Gnaeus). 

NOTE.—In prehistoric times these two sounds were confounded, and c was 
used for both. The character kK (surd_palatal) was thus supplanted, except in a 
few words and abbreviations: as, Kal. (Kalendae), Karthago. 

About 300 B.C. G was invented to distinguish the sonant again, but was put in 
the place in the alphabet once occupied by Z, which at that time had dropped out of 
use. When Z was afterwards restored (in Greek words), it was put at the end of 
the alphabet. . 


7. Till after the age of Augustus the use of u (vowel) after u (v) 
was avoided. This was done either by preserving 0, when but for this 
tendency it would have become u, as in voltus (but cultus), servds ~ 
(but dominus), suds (but meus), quom (but tum), reliquds (but 
relictus) ; or in case of quu, by writing cu, as in ciir (for qu6r), 
ecus (for equos, later equus), cum (for quom, very late quum), 
relicus (for reliquos, later reliquus). Compare c for qu in cotidié, 
written for quotidié. 


Phonetic Variations. 


8. Variations of sound are of two classes :— 


1. Inherited differences of form in the same root (see § 22). 


NOTE.— These variations of form in words connected with each other by deri- 
vation occur in other languages akin to Latin with great regularity and marked 
significance. They lost their importance in Latin, but have left traces throughout 
the language, so that its structure cannot be explained without taking them into 
account, 


2. Unconscious alterations of sounds developed in course of time in 
the language itself. 


NOTE. — Such alterations arise in every language after long use from careless 
articulation and an unconscious tendency to secure an easier utterance; and they 
depend very much upon accent. This process is often called phonetic decay ot 
euphonic change. 


§§ 9, 10.] Phonetic Variations. 5 


9. Inherited differences appear in variations of vowels, 
and less commonly in liquids connected with vowels. 


a. Vowels vary between long and short of the same kind: as, em6, 
I buy, émi, J bought; legs, / read, légi, J read; tegs, / cover, tégula, 
a tile; sond, / sound, persGna, a mask (as sounded through); regs, 7 
rule, réx, a king; Aux, a leader, dics, J lead. 

6. Vowels vary in quality: as, pendd, 7 weigh, pondus, weight ; 
teg6, / cover, toga, a robe; fidus, faithful, foedus, a treaty. (Cf. 
fall, fell; bind, band, bound.) 

c. Vowels vary between a short vowel of one Hat and a long 
vowel or diphthong of another: miser, wretched, maestus, Fas 
dare, fo give, ASnum, gift; agsd, J lead, égi, / led. 

d. Liquids are transposed with vowels, sometimes with change of 
the vowel: as, spernd, / spurn, sprévi, / spurned; sterns, J strew, 
stravi, / strewed; gign6, / beget, (g)natus, a son; fulged, 7 shine, 
flagr6, / burn. 


10. Unconscious changes occur in both vowels and con- 
sonants. 


a. Vowels and diphthongs are weakened, usually in the directions 
marked on the vowel-scale (see page 2): as, factus, made, cOnfectus, 
made up ; lubet (old) zt pleases, libet (later); 4gmen, a march, Agminis, 
ofamarch; capi6, /take, incipiG, / begin; legs, 7 pick, collig6, 7 gather; 
caedo, / cut, cecidi, / have cut; salid, / leaf, exsult6, / leap up and 
down (for joy); pell6, 7drzve, pulsus, driven; servos, a slave (early), 
servus, a slave (later); optumus, optimus (see § 12. d); eboris, 
of tvory, eburneus, made of ivory} vort6 (early), 7 turn, vertd 
- (later), 7 turn. 

NOTE.— When vowels seem to be changed contrary to the direction of the 
vowel-scale, either both are changed in different degrees from some common vowel 
higher up the scale, or the change is due to some special cause: as, iéns, euntis 


(for teions,! +eiontis!); volentem, but volunt&s (for volont-); similis, 
simul (for simolis, etc.); auceps, aucupis. , 


6. Two vowels coming together are very often contracted: as, cdg6 
for co-ag6; obit for obiit; nil for nihil (see § 347.c); dé-bed for de- 
hibeO (de-habeG, see a, above); riirsus, re-versus (re-vorsus, see 
c below); amarat (for amAverat) ; ciinctus (for coiunctus) ; stirgd 
(for sub-regG). 





1 Form not found 


6 Etymology: Letters and Sounds. — [§§ 10,11, 


¢. Vowels are often entirely lost between two consonants (syucofe): 
as, audacter for audaciter; iiirgium for iiirigium; disciplina for 
discipulina; caldus (popular), calidus (literary); or at the end of 
a word: as, dic for dice; satin for satisne; hdrunc for hérunce. 

d. Vowels are rarely inserted between two consonants in the 
effort to pronounce a difficult combination of sounds (cf. ed/um for 
elm); as, Herculés for Herclés, drachuma for drachma, ager for 


agr(o) (See § 38). 

NOTE, —In many cases in which a vowel is sometimes found it is impossible to 
tell whether it is original or developed: as, sSaeclum and saeculum., 

é. Vowels found long in the earlier language are sometimes shortened _ 
later: as, fid€i (later fideI), am&t (later amat: § 375. 5). 


11. a. Consonants are unconsciously substituted one for another 
in accordance with regular tendencies of the language. Thus: — 

1. x for s between two vowels or before m or n: as, eram (root Es), 
generis (for tgenesis, from genus), maere6 (cf. maestus), dirimd 
(dis-em6), diribe6 (dis-habeS), veternus (vetus-nus), carmen 
(tcasmen, cf. Casména). (Compare Eng. was, were.) 

2. 8 for d or t, making an easier combination: as, casus (for 
cad-tus), céssum (céd-tum), mansus (man-tus), passus (pad-tus 
and pat-tus), equester (equet-ter). 

4. Consonants are omitted: as, examen (exagmen), caementum 
(caed-mentum), séméstris (ses-méstris), lina (luc-na), déni (fdec- 
ni), hdc (abl. for héd-ce), autumnus (auctumnus, root AUG), 
fulmen (fulg-men), pérgo (per-regd), lis (stlis), cor (fcord), lac 
(lact-), pés (fpeds). 

1. Especially h: as, praebe6 (prae-habed), véméns (for vehe- 
méns). 

2. And consonant i and v: as, c6nici6 (con-iacid), prérsus (pré- 
vorsus). 

3. Also 8 at the end of a word after a short vowel. 

NOTE. — This is limited to early Latin and colloquial usage: plénu(s) fidéi, 
qualist (qualis est). 

c. Consonants are unconsciously inserted in passing from one sound 
to another: as, simd, / fake, stimpsi, / fook, siimptus, ¢aken (for 
siim-si, sim-tus); hiemps, winter, hiemis, of winter. Cf. Thompson 
“(Tom's son). 

NoTE.— These are called Parasitic sounds, 


d@. Consonants are transposed: misce6, mixtus (for miso-tus). 


§§ 11, 12.] Phonetic Variations. 7 


¢. Consonants and vowels are unconsciously changed (déss¢mlation) 
to avoid a repetition of the same sound in two successive syllables: 
parilia (for palilia, from Palés), meridiés (for medi-diés), pietas 
(for tpiitas, as in caritas). 

NoTE.— In some cases this principle prevents changes which would take place 
according to other tendencies of speech, 

/. Aconsonant is changed by the influence of a neighboring sound, — 

1. Into the same sound as the neighbor (complete assimilation): as, 

_céssi (céd-sI), summus (sup-mus), sella (sed-la), puella (puer(u)- 
la), pressI (prem-si), occid6 (ob-cad6), mitissimus (for mitius- 
timus). 

2. Into a sound of the same organ or the same quality (or both) as 
the neighbor ( Jartial assimilation) (see table of mutes, § 3): as, con- 
ter6 (com-ter6é, labial to lingual), scriptus (scrib-tus, sonant to 
surd), ségmentum (fsecmentuni, surd to sonant), imper6 (in-per6, 
lingual to labial). 

NOTE. — Sometimes the first consonant governs (regressive assimilation), some- 
times the second (progressive assimilation). 

3. These changes affect especially the final consonant of the preposi- 
tion in Compounds: as, accéd6 (ad-céd6), afficid (ad-facid), oc- 
curr6 (ob-curr6), corru6 (com-ru6), efferd (ec-ferd), supp6nd 
(sub-p6n5). 

NOTE.— The rules for this assimilation may be given as follows: ad is assimi- 
lated before C, g, Pp, t; less regularly before 1, r, 8, and rarely before m; while 
before f, n, q, the form ad is to be preferred. ab is not assimilated, but may take 
the form a, au, or abs, In com (con, CO), m is retained before b, p,m; is 
assimilated before 1,n,r; is changed to n before c, d, f, g, j, a, 8, V; sometimes 
becomes n before p; is sometimes assimilated (otherwise n) before land r; com 
loses the final M in c6nect6, cénived, conitor, c6nibium. in usually 
changes n to m before b, m, p; before 1 the better orthography retains n. ob and 
sub are assimilated before ¢, f, g, p, and sometimes before mM; sub also before r; 
and, in early Latin, b of these prepositions sometimes becomes p before 8 or t. 
The inseparable amb loses b before a consonant, and m is sometimes assimilated. 
circum often loses m before i, 8s of dis before a vowel becomes r, and before 
a consonant is lost or assimilated. The d of red and séd is generally lost before 
aconsonant., In most of these cases the later editions prefer the unaltered forms 
throughout; but the changes given above have good authority. Others, which are 


corruptions of the middle ages (as assum for adsum), had better be avoided, 
Lexicons vary in the spelling of these combinations. 


Variations of Spelling occur in manuscripts and 
inscriptions, and especially in modern editions. In the fol- 
lowing lists the better forms are put first; objectionable 
forms in parenthesis. 


8 Etymology: Letters and Sounds. [s§ 12,13, 


NOTE, — These variations are generally mere mistakes in spelling. Many ot 
them are due to the practice of writing from dictation, by which most MS. copies 
of the classics were made. A single reader dictated to several copyists, whose 
spelling was often corrupt. The tendency of the best editions is to restore, as 
normal, the forms of the late Republic or early Empire (the time of Cicero or 
Augustus),—so far as these may be determined from inscriptions, etc.,—but to 
preserve, in each author, any peculiarities that mark the spelling of his time. The 
choice among forms appears often to be arbitrary, for inscriptions of the same 
period sometimes differ considerably. 

a. The letters and sounds of ci and ti are interchanged before 
a vowel: nintid (nincid), contid (concid), dicid (ditid), 
condici6 (conditid), suspici6 (suspitid), tribiinicius (tribi- 
nitius). 

NOTE. — This substitution began very early (in a few words) while the ¢ still had 
the sound of kK. But generally it belongs to a later period of the language, and 
is due to the disturbing influence of consonant 1; n&tiO (zatyo) became zacho, 
or nazio, or nasho. It is this disturbance that has produced the modern sibilant 
sound of c, as well as that of ti: as, zatioz (through the French) from nati6; 
species, from Speciés. 

6. Several words are written sometimes with and sometimes without 
an initial h: as, haréna or (aréna), erus or (herus), umerus o1 
(humerus), timor or (hiimor). 

c. In later Latin, 6, ae, and oe became alike in sound (like ain fate), 
and hence they are often confounded in writing: as, faenus (fénus, 
foenus). 

d. Other words variously spelled are: aduléscéns, adoléscéns ; 
ahéneus, aéneus; 4nulus, annulus; artus, (arctus); autumnus, 
(auctumnus); caelum (coelum); cum, quom, (quum); epistula, 
epistola; exsul, exul; fécundus (foecundus); fémina, (foemina) ; 
litera, littera; lubet, libet; lubid6, libid6; milia, millia; nequi- 
quam, nequicquam, nequidquam; paulus, paullus; quicquam, 
quidquam; umquam, unquam; vert6, vort6; volnus, vulnus; 
proelium, (praelium); voltus, vultus; servos, servus. Also 
the gerundive-form -endus or -undus, and the superlative -imus or 
-umus. - 

é. At the end of a few words d was anciently written t: set for sed, 
aput for apud. 

J. Some variations in spelling mark the changes in §§ Io and If. | 


Combinations. 


13. Two words are often united in writing, and some- 
times in sound. Thus, — 


§§ 13-15. | Kindred Forms. | 9 


a. Conjunctions or other particles and pronouns are sometimes con- 
nected: as in etenim, inusquisque, iamdiidum, iamdii, siquis, 
siquidem; also a few short phrases, as, quaré, quamobrem, réspitib- 
lica, iisiirandum, paterfamilias. 

b. The verb est, zs, is sometimes joined with the preceding word, 
especially in the old poets, when the two would be united by elision: 
as, hom6st, periculumst, ausust, qualist (qualis est) (like thouw’rt, 
I’ve). 

c. Similar contractions are found in vin’ (visne), scin’ (scisne), 
sis (si vis), s6dés (si audés), siiltis (si vultis). So in English, 
don't, won't (wol not). 


Syllables. 


14. In Latin every word has as many syllables as it has 
vowels or diphthongs. 


a. In the division of words into syllables a single consonant between 
two vowels is to be written and pronounced with the latter. 


NOTE. — This rule applies also to V and consonant i. 


b. This rule is sometimes extended to double consonants, or any 
combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word: as, 
ho-spes, ma-gnus, di-xit. 

c. In compounds, the parts should be separated: as, ab-est, ob- 
latus. ; 

d. A syllable preceded by a vowel in the same word is called pure, 
as pi-us; a syllable preceded by a consonant, zwpure, as cOn- 
stat. 

e. Any syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called ofen ; 
all others are called close. Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the 
second close. 


Kindred Forms. 


15. In English words derived from the Latin, the original letters 
are retained (as ambition from ambitid).1 But in native English 
words which are cognate with the Latin (see Appendix), the 
original sounds are rarely represented by the same letters in the two 
languages, but usually by closely related letters which regularly 
correspond. 





1 Many words, however, coming through the French follow French changes: 
as, fashion, fagon (factiO); chivalry, cheval (caballus) ; chimney, cheminée 
(caminus). 


IO Etymology: Letters and Sounds. [$§ 15, 16. 


LATIN ENGLISH S ‘ 
c,k,qu 4H, WH: qui, who; cos, hone; carp, harvest; cal6 (kalen- 


dae), Aazl; cord-, heart. 
g K, CH: genus, 47m; genu, knee; giist6, choose. 
t TH: ti, thou; trés, three; tenuis, thzz. 
Tor D(rarely): stare, stand; torre6, dry. 


d T: dud, two; déns, tooth; seded, szt. 

p F: pater, father; pullus, foal; pauci, few.. 

f (for dh) B: ferd (depw), dear; frater (pparnp), brother. 
f (for dh) D: forés (@vpa), doors; fera (Onp), deer. 

h G: veh6, wagon; haedus, goat; hostis, sree. 


icons.,v yY, W: iugum, yoke; ovis, ewe. 
Sometimes a consonant lost in the Latin appears in the English 
word. Thus, (s)niv-, szow; (h)anser, goose; (s)nervo-, svare. 


Sounds of the Letters. 


NOoTE.— The pronunciation of Latin is different in different countries. Among 
us, it usually follows one of two ways, which may be called the Roman (or Phonetic) 
and the Zzg/ish method. 


16. By the Roman (or Phonetic) method, every letter 


has always the same sound. 


NOTE.—A long vowel in our enunciation almost necessarily acquires a slightly 
different quality from a short one, as in doof and foot, machine and holiest. See 
also bs below. 


VOWELS: a as in father ; A as in 7dea. 
é as eh? (prolonged); they; €&as eh? (clipped). 
I as in machine; i as in holst. 
6 as in holy; 6 as in obey. 
ii as 00 in boot; ti as oo in foot. 


y between # and z (German 7). 
DIPHTHONGS: ae like ay; oe like oy; au like ow in now. 
ei as in ezght; eu as eh'00; uias oo'ce. 
re and g are always hard, as in come, get. 
s is always sharp, as in sea, lips. 
i cons. is like y in young; v (cons. u), like w in i 
CONSONANTS, qu as in English. 
as in English, J bs is like ps; ch like &; ph like # 
except that: | n before s orf was combined with the preceding vowel 
somewhat as French nasal 7, making the vowel long. 
Z as dz in adze. 
t th as in rathole, later as in thin. 





§§ 16-18. | Quantity and Accent. . II 


NOTE 1.—In the ancient pronunciation, ph was distinguished from f by being 
sounded with the lips only, instead of lip and teeth. 

NOTE 2.—In many words (as abietis, tenuis), i and u sometimes had the 
consonant sound, though usually in such words reckoned as vowels. 

NOTE 3.— The diphthong ae was anciently sounded as above, but early in the 
time of the Empire acquired from popular or provincial use the long sound of e. 

NOTE 4.— When two consonants come together (as in condo, postea), or 
a consonant is doubled (as in annus, Gllus, mift6), care should be taken to 
pronounce both letters distinctly. It was doubtless this distinct pronunciation of 
consonants that made a syllable with a short vowel long by Position ($ 18. @). 


17. By the English method, the letters have the same 


sounds as in English; but — 

a. Final a is pronounced as in America; but in the nionosyllabics 
a, da, qua, st&, sometimes as in fay; e in open syllables as in me, in 
close as in wen; i in open syllables as in Hz! in close as in 7m; 0 in 
open syllables as in ome, in close as in wot; u asin Pull or as in hull, 
without any definite rules, as tillus (like gw// us), but full6 (like fiJ. 
oh); y like z. 

NOTE. — In this method of pronunciation, syllables are often treated as open or 
close according to the position of the accent: as, i’-ter (open), it-i’neris (close), 

b. The diphthongs ae, oe, are pronounced like ¢; au like aw; eu 
like ew; ei and ui like zin Azfe; es and (in plural words) 6s at the 
end of a word as in disease, morose. 

c. The consonants ec and g are made soft (like s and 7) before e, i, 
y, ae, oe, eu; ch is always hard, as in chasm, chemist. 

NOTE. — The English method should be retained in Roman names in English, 


as Fulius Cesar; and in familiar quotations, as e¢ pluribus unum; viva voce; 
vice versa; a fortiori; veni, vidi, vict, etc. 


Quantity and Accent. 

18. Vowels are long or short (as affecting their pro- 
nunctation) only by nature. Syllables (as affecting accent 
and metrical value) are long or short, according to their 
vowel, but are also made long by Posztion through the 
obstruction of consonants. The length or shortness in 
both cases is called Quantity (cf. § 347). 


NOTE.—Some of the rules of Quantity affect length by nature only, some 
length by position only, and some both, 

a. A vowel before another vowel or h is short: as in via, nihil, 

6. A diphthong is long: as in aédés, foedus. So, also, a vowel 
derived from a diphthong: as, excliid6 (ex-claud6). 

c. A vowel formed by contraction is long: as, nil (nihil). 


12 Etymology: Letters and Sounds. [§§ 18, 19. 


d. A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants (ex- 
cept a mute with 1 or r), or a double consonant (x, 2), is long by 
Position; asin ping6, saxum, Mezentius. Before nf and ns, gn and 
gm, and i consonant the vowel itself becomes long by nature: as in 
inferd, praeséns, magnus, agmen, hiiius. 

é. A syllable in which a short vowed is followed by a mute with 1 orr 
is common; 2z.¢. it may be long in verse: as in alacris, latebrae. 

jf. A vowel before nd, nt is regularly short by nature: as, amant, 
amandus from amare. 


NOTE.—A vowel is lengthened before i cons. because another i (vowel) is 
developed as a vanish; thus &(‘)yo becomes &i6, 


19. In Latin the accent in words of more than one 
syllable is on the Penult or Antepenult. 

DEFINITION: The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Antepenult, the last 
but two. 

a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first syllable: 
RO’ma, ve’hG, i’pse. 

6. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult, if that 
is long: as, ami’cus, praesen’tis; if it is short or common, on the 
Antepenult: as, do’minus, a’lacris, la'tebrae, conti’nti6, praete’- 
ritum, dissocia’bilis. 

NoOTE.—In words of more than four syllables a secondary accent usually arises ata 
convenient distance from the main accent: as, naviga’’tid’nibus, pectlia’ria. 

c. When an Enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the 
syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short: as, déa’que, 
am4aré’ve, tibi’ne, ita’que (avd...s0), as distinguished from i’'taque 
(therefore). So (according to some) ex’inde, ec’quando, etc. 

d. EXCEPTIONS: 1. Certain apparent compounds of faci6 retain the 
accent of the simple verb: as, benefa’cit, calefa’cit (see § 169. cz) 
(These were not true compounds, but phrases.) 

2. In the second declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in 
-ius, and the genitive of those in -ium retain the accent of the nomi- 
native: as, Corné’li, Vergi'li, inge’ni (see § 4o. ¢). 

3. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of 
the complete words: as, illi’e for illi’ce, pr6dii’c for prédiice, sati’n © 
for sati’sne. 


NOTE.— The ancients recognized three accents, acute (“), grave (~), and czr- 
cumflex (“). Accent no doubt originally consisted in a change of pitch, — eleva, 
tion, depression, or both combined, —and not merely in a more forcible utterancé 
(ictus). But in Latin this pitch accent had been supplanted by a stress accent in 
historical times. 


§§ 20, 21.] Root and Stem. 13 


CuaptTer I].— Words and their Forms. 


Inflection. 


20. INFLECTION is a change made in the form of a 
word, to show its grammatical relations. 


a. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, 
or at the beginning, but oftener in its termination: as, vGx, @ voice; 
vocis, of a voice; vocd, J call; vocat, he calls; vocavit, he has 
called; tangit, he touches; tetigit, he touched. 

6. Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings 
which are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepo- 
sitions, auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English; thus, in vocat, 
the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vGcis, to the preposition 
of or the like; and in vocet the change of vowel signifies a change of 
mood. : 

c. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations 
of tense or mood, and correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in Eng- 
lish: as, frangit, he breaks or ts breaking; frégit, he broke or has 
broken; mordet, he bites; momordit, he dzt.1 


Root and Stem. 


The body of a word, to which the terminations are 
attached, is called the Strem.? 


The Stem contains the zdea of the word without relations; but, 
except in the first part of a compound, it cannot be used without 
some termination to express them. Thus the stem v6c- denotes wocce; 
with -s added it becomes v6x, @ voice or the voice, as the subject or 
agent of an action; with -is it becomes vGcis, and signifies of a voice. 
The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a 
comparison with other forms is necessary to determine it. 





1 The only Proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings; and 
the changes here referred to are strictly changes of Stem, but have become a part 
of the system of inflections. 

2 The name Stem is sometimes incorrectly given to that part of a word —as 
serv- in seryvus — which is unchanged in inflection. This may be called the dase. 


14 Etymology: Words and their Forms. [§§ 22-24. 


22. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis 
of a word into its component parts. Such a form contains 
the main idea of the word in a very general sense, and is 
common also to other words either in the same or kindred 
languages. 

Thus the root of the stem vG6c- ts voc, which does not mean Zo call, 
or / call, or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, 
and cannot be used as a part of speech without terminations. With 4- 
it becomes voca-, the stem of vocdre (40 cal/); with &vi- it is the 
stem of vocavit (he called); with ato- it becomes the stem of voc&tus 
(called) ; with &tidn- it becomes the stem of voc&tidnis (ofa calling). 
With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of v6x (a@ voices that 
by which we call). This stem, again, with -Alis added, means delonging 
to a voice; with -tila, a &ttle voice. 

NoTE.~— In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very 
early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese, Roots are 
modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become Words, The process by which 
roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called 
Stem-building, The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which 
significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation 
and conveying a meaning. 

Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a 
separate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots © 
never really existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used earlier. 

23. The Stem is sometimes the same as the root: as in duc-is, 
of a leader, fer-t, he bears; but it is more frequently formed from the 
root — 

1. By changing or lengthening its vowel: as in scob-8, sawdust (SCAB, 
shave) ; rég-is, of a king (REG, direct) ; v6c-is, of a voice (VOC, call). 

2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root): as in 
fug-a, flight (FUG+a); fugi-s, you fly (FUG+ ya); pang6, / fasten 
(PAG + na). 

3. By two or more of these methods: as in diic-it, 4e eads (DUC +a), 
toll6, 7 raise (TUL+ ya). 

4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development 
peculiar to the language. (See Chap. VIII.) 


24.. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by combination 
with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading to the various 
forms of Declension and Conjugation (see § 32). 





i For example, the root STA is found in the Sanskrit tisthdmi, Greek fern, 
Latin sistere and stare, German ftefen, and English stazd. (See Chap. VIII.) 


§§ 24, 25.] _ The Parts of Speech. 15 


NoTE.—A termination beginning with a vowel is called an open afix one 
beginning with a consonant, a close affix. Whenaclose affix is joined to a con- 
sonant-stem, there is usually either a euphonic change, as in r6xi for reg-si, ora 
vowel appears, as in rég-i-bus, But, in most cases, what is called a connecting 
vowel really belongs to the. stem, as in voc&-mus, regi-mus (see § 123). 


The Parts of Speech. 


25. Words are divided into nine PARTS OF SPEECH: 
Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Participles, Adverbs, 
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 


a. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea: as, 
Caesar; R6ma, Lome; domus, a house; virttis, virtwe. Names 
of persons and places are PROPER Nouns; other nouns are called 
COMMON. 

6. An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality: as, bonus, good; 
fortis, brave, strong. 

NOTE. — Etymologically, there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, 
both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any 
name can still be used to attribute a quality. Thus, A?mg Wiliam distinguishes this 
William from other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name 
King. 

c. A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or 
idea without either naming or describing it: as, is, Ze; qui, who; n6s, we. 

d. A Verb is a word which asserts something: as, sum, 7 am}; 
amat, e loves. 

NOTE.— In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts 
anything, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. 
Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a 
name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have 
been no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late develop- 
ment, ‘ 

e. A Participle is a word that attributes a quality like an adjective, 
but being derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power 
of the verb to assert: as, Caesar c6nsul creatus, Cesar having 
been elected consul; Caesar Pompéium metuéns, Cesar fearing 
Pompey. : 

f. An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner 
of an assertion or attribute: as, splendidé mendax, gloriously false; 
hodié natus, Jorn to-day. 

NOTE. — These same functions are often performed by cases (see §§ 148, 149) of 


nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs 
were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use. 


16 Etymology: Words and their Forms. [§§ 25-28. 


g. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun 
and some other word or words in the same sentence: per agrés it, he 
goes over the fields; 6 pliribus tinum, one out of many. 

NOTE.— Prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. § 152). The relations ex- 
pressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by cases. 

Ah. A Conjunction is a word which connects words, phrases, or sen- 
tences without affecting their relations: as, et, avd; sed, but. 

NOTE.— Some adverbs also connect words, etc., like conjunctions. These are 
called Adverbial Conjunctions or Conjunctive Adverbs: as, ubi, where; AGnec, 
until, 

z. Interjections are mere exclamations. They are not strictly to be 
classed as Parts of Speech: heus, Aalloo! 6, oh! 

NOTE.— They sometimes express an emotion which affects some other things 


mentioned, and so have a connection like other words: as, vae victis, woe to the 
conquered/ (alas for the conquered !) 


26. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have inflections 
of declension, to denote gender, number, and case. Verbs have inflec- 
tions of conjugation, to denote voice, mood, tense, number, and 
person. 

NOTE. — Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison to indicate 


degree. These inflections are, however, properly stem-formations made by deriva- 
tion (cf. § 89). 


27. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called PARTI- 
CLES: these are Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter- 
jections. 

NOTE. — The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, -ne, 
an (interrogative), NON, n& (negative) ; 81 (conditional), etc., which are used simply 
to indicate the form or construction of a sentence. 


Gender. 


28. The genders distinguished in Latin are three: 
Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 


a. The gender of Latin nouns is either zatural or grammatical. 
Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted: as, 
puer, doy; puella, gi7/; donum, g/t. 

NOTE. — Many nouns have both a masculine and feminine form to distinguish 
sex: as, Cervus, cerva, stag, aoe,. cliéns, clienta, client; victor, victrix, 
conqueror, 


Many designations of persons (as nauta, saz/or), usually though not necessarily 
male, are always treated as masculine. 


§§ 28, 29.] General Rules of Gender. 17 


6. Grammatical gender! is a formal distinction as to sex where no 
actual sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective 
joined with the noun: as; lapis magnus (M.), a great stone; manus 
mea (F.), my hand. 

Nortre.— A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging te a 
class: as, Mancipium tuum, your slave. 

Names of classes or bodies of persons may be of any gender: as, exercitus 
(M.), aciés (F.), and 4gmen (N.), army; operae (F. pl.), workmen; COpiae 


(F. pl.), ¢voops. 
Many pet names of girls (as Paegnium, Glycérium) are neuter, 


General Rules of Gender. 


29. 1. Names of Male beings, Rivers, Winds, Months, 
and Mountains, are masculine. 

2. Names of Female beings, Cities, Countries, Plants, 
Trees, and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and 
of most abstract Qualities, are feminine. 


NOTE. — The gender of most of the above may be recognized by their termina- 
tions, according to the rules given under the several declensions. 


a. A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as Allia), with the Greek 
names Léthé and Styx, are feminine; others are variable or uncertain. 

Some names of Mountains take the gender of their termination: 
as, Alpés (F.), the Alps; SGracte (N.). 

Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun 
ménsis, onth, being understood: as, lanuarius, Fanuary. 

6. Some names ne Towns and Countries are masculine: Sulmé, 
Gabii (plur.); or neuter, as Tarentum, Ilyricum. 

A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termina- 
tion: as, centauréum (N.),centaury; acanthus (M.), dearsfoot; opalus 


(M.), opal. 


i What we call grammatical gender is in most cases the product of the imagi- 
nation in a rude age, when language was in the course of growth. Thus a River 
was seen, or a Wind was felt, as a diving creature, violent and strong, and so is 
masculine; and the fable of Atlas shows how similar living attributes were ascribed 
to Mountains, which, in the northern fables, are the bones of giants. Again, the 
Earth, or a country or city, seems the mother of its progeny; the Tree shelters and 
ripens its fruit, as a brooding bird her nest of eggs; and, to this day, a Ship is 
always referred to by a feminine pronoun, 

Again, in the East and South, the Sun, from its fierce heat and splendor, is 
masculine, and its paler attendant, the Moon, feminine; while, among Northern © 
nations, the Sun (perhaps for its comforting warmth) is feminine, and the Moon 
(the appointer of works and days), masculine. The rules of grammatical gender 
only repeat and extend these early workings of the fancy. 





18 Etymology: Words and their Forms. [§§ 29-31. 


c. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as nouns, 
and words quoted merely for their form, are neuter: as, fas, right; 
nihil, nothing; gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowledge (to know) ; 
triste valé, a sad farewell; h6c ipsum did, this very “long.” 


30, Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, according 
to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common Gender: 
as, exsul, exile; b6s, ox or cow. 

a. If a noun signifying a thing without life may be either masculine 
or feminine, —as, diés, day; finis, exd, —it is sometimes said to be of 
Doubtful Gender. 

d. Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent 
of sex. These are called Epicene. Thus lepus, dave, is always mascu- 
line, and vulpés, fox, is always feminine. To denote a male fox we 
may say, vulpés mascula; a female hare, lepus fémina. 


Wumber and Case. 
31. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are de- 
clined in two Numbers, szvgularand plural; and in six Cases, 
nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative. 


a. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence. 

6. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Pos- 
sessive, or by the Objective with the preposition of. 

c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (§ 177). It may 
usually be translated by the Objective with the preposition Zo or for’ : 
but sometimes by the Objective without a preposition. 

ad. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb (§ 177). 
It is used also with many of the Latin Prepositions. 

é. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address. 

jf. The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with 
from, by, with, in, or at. It is also often used with prepositions. 

g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, may be used as 
object-cases ; and are sometimes called Odligue Cases (casiis obliqut). 

NOTE.—A more convenient arrangement of the cases is the following (see n.,p.205): 

DIRECYt CASES: Nominative, Vocative, Accusative. 
INDIRECT CASES: Genitive, Dative, Ablative. 

h. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another 
case (the Locative), denoting the place where. 

z. Still another case, the /mstrumental, appears ina few adverbs (§ 148). 

Note. — As the proper inflectional terminations early became fused with the stem 
in many cases, Latin words are inflected practically by adding case-endings to a 
part of the noun called the dase, which is invariable (see § 21. note 2). But the base 
and case-endings do not exactly correspond to the proper stem and termination. 


§§ 32, 33.] Declension of Nouns. 19 


Cuapter III.—Declenston of Nouns. 


32. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distin- 
guished by the case-ending of the Genitive Singular, and 
by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem.? 


DEcL. 1. Gen. Sing. ae Characteristic 4 (anciently 4) 
“ce oo “ I it 


eee. as is <i i or a Consonant 
fo ae . fis(uis) “ ti 
“cc 5: “cc éi “ é 


a. The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant-stem, by omit- 
ting the case-ending ; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for the case-ending 
the characteristic vowel. 

4. The Nominative of most masculine and feminine nouns (except 
in the first declension) is formed from the stem by adding s.? 

NOTE, — But many, however, end in 0, or in the liquids, 1, n, r,—the original 8 
(sometimes with one or more letters of the stem) having been lost by phonetic decay 
(§ 11). In some (as in servus, st. Servo-) the stem-vowel is modified before 


the final S; or, as in ager, imber, st. agro-, imbri-, a vowel has intruded itself 
into the stem, 


33. The following are general Rules of Declension : — 


a. The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in 
the singular of nouns in us of the second declension.® 





1 Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to differ- 
ent forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the 
language have given rise to the several declensions ; but it is probable that originally 
there was only one, with perhaps a few variations. The original terminations 
(answering to prepositions) can no longer be determined with certainty, except in 
a few cases. Most of the case-endings, as given in Latin, contain also the final 
letter of the stem. 

Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be 
classed with them. But they have several peculiarities of inflection, and will be 
more conveniently treated in a group by themselves (see Chap. IV.). 

2 The s of the nominative is the remnant of an old demonstrative sa, which is 
found (with modifications) in the Sanskrit personal pronoun, in the Greek article, 
and in the English she. 

8 In the first and second declensions the vocative ends in the weakened stem- 
vowel. Most of the words likely to be used in address are of these declensions; and, 
in practice, comparatively few other words have a vocative. It is given in the 
paradigms for the sake of symmetry, but may well be omitted in declining, - 


20 Etymology: Declenston of Nouns.  [§§ 33-35. 


4. In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in 
the plural end in a. 

¢. The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in 
m; the Accusative plural in s. 

@. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) 
the Dative singular ends in f. 

é. The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike. 

jf. The Genitive plural always ends in um. 

g. Final i, 0, u of inflection are always dong; final a is short, except 
in the Ablative singular of the first declension; final e is doug in the 
first and fifth declensions, sZor¢ in the second and third. 


34. The Case-endings of the several declensions are the following, 
rare forms being given in parenthesis, Greek forms in ztalics : — 


DECL. I. Il. Ill. “IV. v. 
Sing. 
N. a, 2, Zs, 2 Us, UM, CY, 0S, 07, CUS S (or modified stem) us, és 
G. ae (a1) és I (ius) 0, a, e is, yos, Os tis (uis) é1(é) 
D. ae (ai) 6 (3) é, 26 i (Z, rare) ul (i) éi (é) 
A. am, d@7,é@m um, on, ¢a em (im) 27, yz,@ um, ti em 
Vv. 4,2, 2 é (1) er, ew (asnom.)%y us, és 
A. a, @ 6, 6 e (i), i, yé Rest é 
Plur. 
N.V. ae ee va | és, a, ia, 2s iis, ua és 
G. 4rum(im) 6Grum (im,6m)dz um,ium,¢éz uum érum 
D.A.is(a€bus) is (Gbus) ibus ibus (ibus) ébus 
A. as os 6s (is), a,ia, ds tis, ua és 


FIRST DECLENSION. 
35. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends 
in 4, and except in Greek nouns the nominative is like the 


stem. 
Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined :— 


SINGULAR. PLURAL, 
om. stella, a (or the) star. stellae, stars. 
GEN.  stellae, of a star. stellarum, of stars. 
Dat. _ stellae, Zo (or for) a star. stellis, ¢o (or for) stars. 
Acc.  stellam, a star. stellas, stars. 
Voc. _ stella, thou star! stellae, ye stars! 


ABL. stella, with, Srom,etc.,astar.  stellis, wth, from, etc., stars. 
NOTE, — The a- of the stem was originally long, 


8§ 35-37. | First Declenston: Greek Nouns. 21 


GENDER. — Nouns of the first declension are Feminine. 


ExcEpTIONS: Nouns masculine from their signification: as, nauta, 
sailor. So afew family or personal names: as, Miréna, Scaevola.! 
Also, Hadria, the Adriatic. 


36. CAsE-Forms.—a. The Genitive singular anciently ended in -ai, 
which is occasionally found: as, aulai. The same ending occurs in 
the dative, but only as a diphthong. 

6. An old genitive in -4s is preserved in the word familias, used in 
the combinations pater (mater, filius, filia) familias, father, etc., 
of a family (plur. patrés familias or familiarum). 

c. The Locative form (§ 31. #) for the singular ends in -ae; for the 
plural in is: as, R6mae, at Rome; Athénis, at Athens. 

d. The Genitive plural is sometimes found in -iim instead of -Aarum, 
especially in compounds with cdla and géna, signifying dwelling and 
descent: as, caelicolim, celestials; Trdiugentim, sons of Troy; 
Aeneadim, sons of 4/neas; so amphora and drachma. 

é. The Dative and Ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, 
end in an older form -abus. So rarely with liberta, freed-woman; 
miila, she-mule; equa, mare. But, except when the two sexes (as in 
formulas, documents, etc.) are mentioned together, the form in -is is 
preferred in all but dea and filia. 

jf. The original ending of the Ablative -d is retained in early Latin: 
as, praedad, dooty. 


Greek Nouns. 


37. Many nouns of the first declension borrowed from 
the Greek are entirely Latinized, but many retain traces 
of their Greek forms in various degrees. 


acourt (¥.). lectra(¥.). asynopsis(F.). the art of music (F.). 


Nom. aula Electra (4) epitomé miisica (é) 
GEN. aulae Electrae _epitomés miisicae (6s) 
Dat. aulae Electrae epitomae miisicae 

Acc. aulam Electram (an) epitomén miisicam (€n) 
Voc. aula Electra epitomé miisica (@) 
ABL. aula Electra epitomé ~ miisica (@) 





1 A feminine adjective, used as a noun, meaning /ittle left hand, but from being 
a.name of a man it becomes masculine. Original genders are often thus changed 
by the use of a noun in another sense, 


22 Etymology: Dectlension of Nouns.  {8§ 37, 38. 


Andromache (F.). 4:neas (M.). Leonidas (M.). a Persian (M.). 


Nom. Andromaché (a) Aenéads Leonidas Persés (a) 
GEN. Andromachés (ae) Aenéae Lednidae Persae 
Dat. Andromachae Aenéae Lednidae Persae 


Acc. Andromachén (am) Aenéan(am) Lednidam _—_— Persén (am) 
Voc. Andromaché (a) <Aenéa(&) Lednida (a) Persa 


ABL. Andromaché (a) Aenéa Leonida Persé (a) 
Anchises (M.). son of E-neas (M.) comet (M.). 

Nom. Anchisés Aeneadés (a) cométés (a) 

GEN.  Anchisae Aeneadae cométae 

Dat.  Anchisae Aeneadae cométae 

Acc. Anchisén (am) Aeneadén cométén (am) 

Voc. Anchisé (a, a) Aeneadé (a) cométa 

ABL.  Anchisé (4) Aeneadé (a) cométa (€) 


Also Scipiadam, from Scipiadés, in Horace. 

a. Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the 
third declensions: as, BoGtae (gen. of Bodtés, -is), Thiicydidas 
(acc. plur. of Thiicydidés, -is). See § 43.-a and § 63. 

6. Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural is regular: 
as, cométae, -drum, etc. There are (besides proper names) about 
thirty-five of these words, several being names of plants, or names of - 
arts: as, crambé, cabbage; misicé, music. Most have also regular 
Latin forms ; as, cométa, but the nominative sometimes has the a long. 


SECOND DECLENSION. 

38. The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends 
in 51 (as of vir, vird-; servos (-us), servd-; dominus, domind-). 
The nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in 
masculines and feminines, m in neuters, the vowel 6 being 
weakened to & (see §§ 7 and Io). 

In most nouns whose stem ends’in ré- the s is not added, 
‘but o is lost, and e intrudes before r, if not already present 
(cf. chamber from chambre): as, ager, stem agrd-, Greek 
aypes. Exceptions are hesperus, icterus, iiniperus, mérus, 
numerus, taurus, umerus, uterus, virus, and many Greek 
nouns. 





1 This is the original masculine 4-stem corresponding to the @-stem of the 
first declension; but the a had already approached © before the separation of the 
languages (see Appendix). 


§§ 38-40. | Second Declension. | 23 


Latin nouns of the Second Declension are thus declined :— 


fom slave (M.). boy (M.). field (M.). man (M.). war (N.). 


Nom. servus(os) puer ager vir bellum 
GEN. _ servi pueri agri viri belli 
DAT.  serv6 puer6 agro vird bell6 
Acc. servum(om)puerum agrum virum bellum 
Voc. _ serve puer ager vir bellum 
ABL.  serv6 puer6 agro vird bell6 
Plur. 

Nom. _ servi pueri agri viri bella 
GEN. servGrum  puer6rum agr6rum  vird6rum bell6rum 
Dat. _ servis pueris agris viris bellis 
Acc. _ servés. puer6s agrds virds bella 
Voc. servi pueri agri viri bella 
ABL. _ servis pueris agris viris bellis 


NoTE. — The earlier forms for nominative and accusative were -Os, -on, and 
these were always retained after u and Vv up to the end of the Republic. The 
terminations 8S and M are sometimes omitted in inscriptions: as, Cornélio for 
Cornélios, Cornéliom, 


39. GENDER. — Nouns ending in us (os), er, ir, are Mas- 
culine ; those ending in um (on) are Neuter. But— 


a. Names of towns in us (os) are Feminine: as, Corinthus. 
Also many names of plants and gems, with the following: alvos, edly ; 
carbasus, /inen (plural carbasa, saz/s, N.); colus, distaf’; humus, 
ground; vannus, winnowing-shovel. Many Greek nouns retain their 
original gender: as, arctus (F.), te Polar Bear ; methodus (F.), method. 

6. The following in us are Neuter; their accusative, as of all neuters, 
is the same as the nominative: pelagus (nom. acc. plur. pelagé), sea; 
virus, foison; vulgus (rarely M.), the crowd; so cété, sea-monsters 
(nominative plural without nominative singular). 


40. CAsE-Forms.—a. The Locative form of this declension ends 
for the singular in I: as, humi, on the ground; Corinthi, at Corinth; 
for the plural, in is: as, Philippis, at Philippi. 

6. The genitive of nouns in ius or ium ended, until the ‘Aignnnan 
Age, in a single 1: as, fili, of a son; but the accent of the nominative 
is retained: as, ingé/ni, of genius.1 The same contraction occurs 
in the genitive singular and the dative and ablative plural of nouns in 
-dius and -6ius: as, Grais, for the Greeks ; Pompéi, of Pompey. 





1 The genitive in ii occurs twice in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid, but was 
unknown to Cicero. The first i was probably retained in sound as y. 


24 Etymology: Declension of Nouns.  [8§§ 40-42. 


c. Proper names in -ius lose e in the vocative, retaining the accent 
of the nominative: as, Vergi’lI; also, filius, sow; genius, divine 
guardian: as, audi, mi fili, hear, my son. 

d. Greek names in -Ius have the vocative ie. Adjectives in -ius 
form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occasionally used as 
nouns: as, Lacedaemonie, oh Spartan. 

e. The genitive plural often has tim or (after v) Sm (cf. § 7) for 
Srum, especially in the poets: as, detim, superiim, divém, of ¢he 
Gods, virtiim, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words 
of money, measure, and weight: as, sévirtim, of the Sevirz, nummim, 
of coins, iugeriim, of acres. 

Ff. Deus, god, has vocative deus; plural: nominative and vocative dei 
or di (for dil); genitive deGrum, detim; dative and ablative deis or 
dis (for diis). For the genitive plur. diviim or div6m (from divus, 
divine) is often used. 

g. The original ending of the ablative -d is found in early Latin: as, 
Gnaivo6d (later, Gnaed), Crezus. 7 

41. The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem, 
retain the e throughout : — 

adulter, adulterer ; gener, son-in-law; puer, Joy; 
socer, father-in-law; vesper, evening. 
Also, compounds in fer and ger (stem fero-, gero-): as, lucifer, 
morning star; armiger, sguzre. 

a. Some of these have an old nominative in-erus: as, socerus. So 
vocative puere, a doy, as from puerus (regularly puer). 

6. Vir, man, has the genitive virl; the adjective satur, sated, has 
satiiri; vesper, evening, has abl. vespere (loc. vespert, zx the evening). 

c. Liber (a name of Bacchus) has genitive Liberi; so, too, the 
adjective liber, free, of which liberi, chzldren, is the plural (§ 82. 0). 

d. Ibér and Celtibér, barbaric names not properly belonging to 
this declension, retain € throughout. 

e. Mulciber, Vu/can, has -beri and -bri in the genitive. 

42. The following not having e in the stem insert it in the nomi- 
native and vocative singular. (Cf. § Io. d@.) 

ager, field,st.agro-; coluber, szake; magister, master; 


aper, doar; conger, sea-eel; minister, servant; 

_ arbiter, judge; culter, £uzfe; oleaster, we/d-olive ; 
auster, south wind; faber, smith; onager (-grus), w7/d-ass ; 
cancer, crab; — fiber, deaver ; scomber (-brus), szackerel. 
caper, goat; liber, do0k; 


[N.B.— For the corresponding forms of Adjectives, see Chap. IV.] 


§§ 43, 44.] Third Declension. : 25 


43. Greek nouns—including many names in -eus —are 
declined as follows in the Singular, the Plural being 
regular :— 


fable (M.). mock-sun = ). Delos (F.). Athos (M.). Orpheus (M.). 


Nom. mythos parélion Délos Ath6s (6) Orpheus 
GEN. mythi parélii Deli Ath6 (I) Orphei (eos) 
Dat. myth6 _ parélid Dél6 Aths Orphei 

Acc. mython parélion Délon(um) Athén (um) Orphea 
Voc. mythe  parélion Déle Athés Orpheu 
ABL. myth6 __ parélid Déld Athsd Orphed 


a. Many names in -és belonging to the third declension have also a 
genitive in -I: as, Thiic¥didés, Thiic¥didi (compare §§ 37.4 and 52). 

&. Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us: as, Teucer 
or Teucrus. The name Panthiis has the vocative Panthii (§ 63. z). 

c. The genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek ter- 
mination -6n: as, GeSrgic6n, of the Georgits. 

d. The termination -oe (for Greek -ov) is sometimes found in the 
nominative plural: as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence). 


THIRD DECLENSION, 


Nouns of the Third Declension are best classed accord- 
ing to their stems, as ending (1) in a Vowel (i), (2) in a 
Liquid (1, n, r), (3) in a Mute. 

A few whose stems end in u, formerly long (gris, siis), were treated 
as consonant-stems. 


1. Mute-Stems. 

44, Masculine and Feminine nouns, whose stem ends in 
a Mute, form the nominative by adding -s. If the mute is 
a lingual (t, a), it is suppressed before -s; if it is a palatal 
(c, g), it unites with -s, forming -x: as, ~ 

op-is, ops, 4e/p; custdd-is, custés, guardian; rég-is, réx, king. 

Neuters have for the nominative the simple stem (with 
some modifications, see § 45). 
_ Capit-is, caput, dead; poémat-is, poéma, poem. 





1 In these the genitive is given first to show the stem as it occurs in practice, 


26 Etymology: Declension of Nouns.  [§§ 45, 46. 


The vowel before the final consonant of the stem 
is often modified : — 


a. LABIALS. — Stems in -ip- have e before p in the nominative :! as, 
adip-is, adeps. Most stems in cip- are compounds of the root CAP 
(in capid, zake): as, particip-is, particeps, skarer. In these the 
stem sometimes has the form cup-: as, aucup-is, auceps, fowler. 

6. LINGUALS.—Stems in it- (M. or F.) have e (short) in the nomi- 
native: as, hospit-is, hospes. The neuter capit-is has caput. 
Neuter stems ending in two consonants, and those ending in At- (Greek 
nouns), drop the final lingual: as, cord-is, cor; poémat-is, poéma. 

¢. PALATALS. — Stems in ic- (short i) have the nominative in -ex, . 
with a few exceptions (§ 67. e), and are chiefly masculine: as, apic-is, 
apex; indic-is, index. Those in Ic- (long i) retain 7, and are femi- 
nine: as, cornic-is, cornix.? 


46. Nouns of this class are declined as follows :— 
ae help(¥.) king (M.). guide(c.).3 soldier (M.). head (N.). 


STEM op- rég- duc- milit- capit- 
Nom. [ops] réx dux miles caput 
GEN. opis régis ducis militis capitis 
DAT. opi régi duct militT capiti 
Acc. opem régem ducem militem caput 
Voc. ops réx dux miles caput 
-ABL. ope rége duce milite capite 
Plur. wealth . 
Nom. opés régés ducés milités capita 
GEN. opum régum  ducum militum capitum 
DAT. opibus régibus ducibus militibus  capitibus 
Acc. opés régés ducés milités capita 
Voc. opés régés ducés milités capita 


ABL. opibus régibus ducibus  wmilitibus  capitibus 





1 In these cases @ is a less weakened form of the root (§ 10. 2). A few whose 
root-vowel is i follow the analogy of the others: as, indic-is, index, 

2 In nix, nivis, the nominative retains a palatal lost in the other cases (original 
stem snig-, compare § 15. and ningit, §146.a). Supellex (-ectilis) is partly a 
lingual-, partly ani-stem, Of apparent s-stems in Latin, AS (assis) is an i-stem; 
and the original stem of os (ossis) is Osti- (cf. d0réov and Sanskrit asthi). 
Original s-stems have either (1) passed into r-stems (changed from 8 (§ 11. a. 1)) 
in most of the cases, as honor, -Gris, corpus, -Sris (see liguid stems); or 
(2) have broken down into i-stems, as m6lés (cf. molestus), nfibés (Sanskrit 
nabhas), 8606s (cf. €60s), vis (plur. virés), etc., but VAs keeps its proper form in 
the nominative. 8 Common gender, see § 30. 

4 The singular (meaning 4¢/) is not used in the nominative, except as the name 
of a divinity, The dative singular occurs but once, 


55 47, 48.| Third Declension. pene 


In like manner are declined ~ 


princeps, -ipis (C.), chief; ariés, -etis (M.), vam; 
lapis, -idis (M.), stone; itidex, -icis (M.), judge; 
custés, -Gdis (C.), guard; cornix, -Iicis (F.), vaven; 


comes, -itis (C.), companion; poéma, -atis (N.), Jocm (§ 47.6). 

a. Many apparent mute-stems,? having the genitive plural in -ium, 
are to be classed with i-stems (§ 54). 

6. Greek neuters (as poéma), with nominative singular in -a, 
frequently end in the dative and ablative plural in -is, and in the gen- 
itive plural rarely in -G6rum. 

c. A few nouns apparent i-stems belong here: canis, or canés, gen. 
canis (stem orig. can-), dog. 


2. Liquid-Stems. 


. In nouns whose stem ends ina Liquid G29), Cae 
PP skit is the same as the stem, except when modified 
as follows :— 


a. Stems in G6n- (M. and F.) drop n in the nominative: as in le6n-is, 
le6, Lion; legidn-is, legis, legion. 

é. Stems in din- or gin- (mostly feminine) drop n and keep an 
original 6 in the nominative: as, virgin-is, virg6, wazden. Also a few 
others:? as, homin-is, hom6, wan; turbin-is, turb6, whirlpool; 
Apollin-is, Apoll6; carn-is, car6, flesh (see § 61); Anién-is, AniG. 
Most other stems in Ins have e and retain n;: as, cornicin-is, 
cornicen (M.), horn-blower; carmin-is, carmen (N.), song.® 

c. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative: as, patr-is, pater, 
father; matr-is, mater, sother.4 

ad. Many neuter stems in er- and or- (originally s-stems) have -us in 
the nominative: as, oper-is, opus, work; corpor-is, corpus, dody. 
Some stems in er- have -is: as, ciner-is, cinis, ashes. 

.A few masculine and feminine stems have the nominative in -8 as well 
as -r; as, honGr-is, honés (or honor); arhdr-is, arb6s (orarbor), ¢vee.§ 

Nore, — For some irregular nominatives of this kind, see § 50, 





1 That is, as would appear from the nominative, 

2 All these had originally 6 in the stem, 

8 These differences are inherited from the parent speech, and depend upon dif- 
ferent modifications of the same original vowel (§ 10). 

4 These, no doubt, had originally ter- in the stem, but this had become weake 
ened to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nom, 
and voc, sing. show the e. Butcf. Marspitris and Marspiteris (M&(r)s-piter) 

5 See Note 2, page 26, 


[$§ 48-50. 


28 Etymology: Declension of Nouns. 


e. Stems in ll-, rr- (N.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative: 
as, farr-is, far, grain; fell-is, fel, gall. 


49. Nouns of this class are declined as follows :— 
Sing. consul(M.). Jon (M.). maiden (F.). name (N.). 
Xe Stem cOnsul- leon- virgin- nodmin- 

24 oM. consul led virg6 nomen 
GEN. _consulis lednis virginis nominis 
Dat. —consuli leoni virgin nomini 
Acc.  cdnsulem lednem virginem nomen 
Voc. consul _ea__ _virgo. no nien 
ABL. _consule leone virgine nomine 
Plur. 

Nom. consulés lednés virginés nomina 
GEN. cdnsulum lednum virginum nominum 
Dat. cdnsulibus _ lednibus virginibus nominibus 
Acc. _consulés leonés virginés nomina 
Voc.  cdnsulés lednés virginés _ _ndmina 
ABL. cdnsulibus  lednibus virginibus ndminibus 
Sing. Jody (N.). race (N.). zvory (N.). plain (N.). 
St. corpor-, orig. corpos- gener- orig. gene°s- ebor-* aequor- 
NoM. corpus genus ebur aequor 
GEN. corporis generis eboris aequoris 
DaT. — corpori generi ebori aequori 
Acc. corpus genus ebur aequor 
Voc. corpus genus ebur——....._ “gemor 
ABL.  corpore genere ebore aequore 
Plur. 
NoM. corpora genera ebora aequora 
GEN.  corporum generum eborum aequorum 
Dat. corporibus  generibus eboribus aequoribus 
Acc. corpora genera ebora aequora 
Voc. corpora genera ebora___—_—SSaequera- 
ABL. corporibus  generibus eboribus aequoribus 


50. In like manner are declined — 

arbor (-6s), -oris (F.), ree. 
honor (-6s), -Gris (M.), onor. 
pignus, -eris or -oris, Aledze. 


pater, patris (M.), father: 
furfur, -uris (M.), bran; 
opus, -eris (N.), work ; 





1 A foreign word forced into the analogy of the r- (S-) stems. 


§§ 50-52. ] Third Declension. 20 


The following apparently liquid stems have the genitive plural in 
-ium, and are to be classed with the i-stems: imber, linter, titer, 
venter ; fir, glis, lar, mas, miis, [frén]; also virés (pl. from vis: 
see § 61). 

3. Vowel-Stems. 


51. Vowel-stems of the Third Declension end in i- (as 
turris, stem turri-; mare, stem mari-). The nominative, 
except in neuters, is formed by adding -s to the stem. 


a. Thirty-five nouns change i to é in the nominative,! and many 
others vary between i and &: as, civés or civis, c7/7zen; camés or 
canis. 

&. The nominative of a few stems in bri- and tri- does not add -s, 
but loses i, inserting e before r. These are imber, linter, iter, 
venter (§ 54, and cf. ager). 

c. The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the 
change of i to € (asin mare). But when i was preceded by al or ar, 
the e was lost, as in animal (§ 53. c).? 


2. Nouns of this class are declined as follows :- 
ing. thirst (F.). tower(F.). cloud(¥.). seat(N.). animal (N.). 


STEM siti- turri- nubi- sedili- animali- 
Nom. _ sitis turris niibés sedile animal 
GEN. _ sitis turris nubis sedilis animalis 
DaT. _ siti turri nibi sedili animali 
Acc.  sitim turrem (im) nibem sedile animal 
Voc. _ sitis turris nubés sedile animal 
ABL. ~ siti turre (I) niube sedili animalit 

. Plur. 

Nom. turrés nubés sedilia animalia 
GEN. turrium nubium sedilium animalium 
DAT. turribus nibibus ° sedilibus animalibus 
Acc. turris (6s) niibis (és) sedilia animalia 
Voc. turrés nubés sedilia animalia 
ABL. turribus nibibus_ sedilibus animalibus 





1 These are acinacés, aedés, alcés, caed6s, cautés, cladés, compagés, 
contagés, famés, félés, fidés (pl.), indolés, labés, lués, mélés, m6lés, 
nibés, palumbés, prdlés, proépagés, ptiibés, sédés, saepés, sordés, 
stragés, strués, subolés, tabés, torqués, tudés, vatés, vehés, veprés, 
verrés, vulpés (aedé6s has also nom, aedis),. 

2Except in auguraéle, collare, f6cale, mare, navale, penetrale, 
sciitale, tibidle; alveare, capillare, cochleare, 


30 Etymology: Declension of Nouns. — [§§ 53, 54. 


53. Nouns of this class include :— 


a. Nouns of the third declension in -és or -is (mostly feminine) or 
e (neuter) having the same number of syllables in the nominative and 
genitive ( Jarisyllabic). 

b. Those in -er, except pater, mater, frater, accipiter. 

c. Neuters in -al, -ar (originally neuters of adjectives in -alis, -aris) 
which have lost a final -e.? 


54. Many nouns with apparently consonant-stems were 
originally i-stems.2- These are — 


1. Monosyllables with stem apparently ending in two consonants: 
as, urbs, m6ns (gen. montis), nox (gen. noctis), arx; together 
with imber, linter, iiter, venter (§ 51. 4). 

2. Stems in tat- (as civitas, -dtis), or in d or t preceded bya 
consonant (including participles used as nouns); also the monosyllables 
dos, [tfaux], fiir, glis, lis, mas, mis, nix, [trén ], strix, vis, scrobs 
(cf. § 50). 

3. Nouns denoting birth or abode, having stems in 4t-, It-, originally 
adjectives: as, Arpinas, -Atis (§ 164.c.), with penatés and optimatés 
(§ 76. 2). 

They are thus declined : — 


Sing. city (F.). night (F.). age (F.). mouse (M.). shower (M.). 


StEM urbi- nocti- aetati- muri- imbri- 

M. urbs nox aetas mis imber 
GEN. urbis noctis aetatis miris imbris : 
DaT. urbi nocti aetati muri imbri 
Acc. urbem noctem aetatem miurem imbrem 
Voc. urbs nox aetas mus imber 
ABL. urbe nocte aetate miire imbre (1) 





1 These are animal, bacchanal, bidental, capital, cervical, cubital, 
lupercal, mintital, puteal, quadrantal, toral, tribtnal, vectigal; 
calcar, cochlear, exemplar, laciinar, laquear, licar, liminar, lupanar, 
palear, pulvinar, torcular; with the plurals dentalia, frontalia, genualia, 
ramalia, spOnsalia: altaria, plant&ria, specularia, talaria; also many 
names of festivals as SAturn@lia. 

2 The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it 
stable at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forms which afterwards 
disappeared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in adjectives to 
gain them. The nominative plural (-is) was most thoroughly lost, next the ac- 
cusative form (-im), next the ablative (-1); while the genitive and accusative plural 
(-ium, -is) were retained in almost all. 

8 These, however, more commonly have the genitive plural in -um, 


§§ 54-57. ] Third Declension. 31 


Plur. 

Nom. urbés noctés aetatés miurés imbrés 
GEN. urbium  noctium =  aetatum(ium)mirium  imbrium 
Dat. urbibus  noctibus aetatibus miribus imbribus 
Acc. urbis(6s) noctis (és) aetatis (6s) miuris (és) imbris (és) 
Voc. urbés noctés aetatés miurés imbrés 
ABL. urbibus  noctibus aetitibus miribus imbribus 


NOTE.— The declension of these nouns in the singular differs in no respect from 
that of consonant-stems, and in the plural in no respect from that of vowel-stems. 


55. Vowel-stems show the i of the stem in the follow- 
ing forms : — 

a. They all have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables 
lack it entirely). For a few exceptions, see § 59. 

6. All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia. 

c. The accusative plural (M. or F.) is regularly -is. 

d. The accusative singular (M. or F.) of a few ends in -im (§ 56). 

é. The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and 
feminines, ends in -I (see § 57). 


56. The regular case-ending of the accusative singular 
of i-stems (mM. or F.) would be -im: as, sitis, sitim (cf. stella, 
-am; servos, -om); but in most nouns this is changed to -em 
(following the consonant declension). 


a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively — 
1. In Greek nouns and names of rivers. 
2. In biiris, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis. 
3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as 
partim ; and in amussim. 
6. The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, 
restis, turris, sectiris, sémentis, and rarely in many other words. 


57. The regular form of the ablative singular of i-stems 
would be -2: as, sitis, siti; but in most nouns this is changed 


to -e. 
a. The ablative in -i is found exclusively — 

1. In nouns having the accusative in -im (§ 56); also seciiris. 

2. In the following adjectives used as nouns: aequAlis, ann4lis, 
aqualis, cOnsularis, gentilis, molaris, primipilaris, 
tribilis. 

3. In neuters (whose nominative ends in -e, -al, -ar): except 
baccar, iubar, and sometimes (in verse) mare, réte. 


32 Etymology: Declenston of Nouns.  [§§ 57-60. 


b. The ablative in -I is found sometimes — 

I. In avis, clavis, febris, finis, Ignis,! imber, navis, ovis, 
pelvis, puppis, sémentis, strigilis, turris. 

2. In the following adjectives used as nouns: affinis, bipennis, 
canalis, familiaris, natalis, rivalis, sapiéns, tridéns, 
trirémis, v6calis. 

c. The ablative of famés is always famé (§ 78. 1. ¢). The defec- 
tive mane has sometimes locative mani (§ 77. 2. ¢) used as ablative. 

dad. Most names of towns in -e,—as Praeneste, Tergeste, —and 
S6racte, a mountain, have the ablative in-e. Caere has Caeréte. 

é. For canis. see § 47. ¢. 


58. The regular Nominative plural of i-stems would be -is, but this 
is very rarely found in nouns. The regular Accusative -Is is common, 
but not exclusively used in aay word. An old form for both cases is 
-€is (diphthong). 


59. The following have -um (not -ium) in the Genitive plural: 
canis, iuvenis (originally consonant-stems); ambagés, mare (once 
only, otherwise wanting), volucris; also (sometimes) apis, caedés, 
cladés, ménsis, sédés, strués, subolés, vatés, and (very rarely) 
patrials in -As, -Atis; -Is, -itis; as, Arpinas, Arpinatum; Samnis, 
Samnitum. ; 

4. Irregular Nouns. 


60. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in 
the nominative or other cases. Thus — 


a. The vowel-stems grii-, sii-, add -s in the nominative, and are in- 
flected like mute-stems: griis has also a nominative gruis; siis has 
both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative plural. 

6. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 6 in the 
nominative (b6s, bévis). In nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, -is). 
In Idv- (= Zed’s) the diphthong (ou) becomes @ in Ii-piter (for, 
-pater), gen. Idvis, etc. 

c. In iter, itineris (N.), iecur, iecinoris (N.), supellex, supellec- 
tilis (F.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem, in 
senex, senis from a longer; so that these words show a combination of 
two distinct forms. The shorter form is found in the genitive iecor-is. 

d. Of the many original s-stems, only vas, vasis (N.) (pl. vasa, 
-Grum) (see p. 26, foot-note 2), retains its proper form in the nomi- 
native (see § 48. @). 





1 Always in the formula aqua et igni interdici (§ 243. a). 


§§ 61-63. ] Third Declension. 33 


61. Some peculiar forms are thus declined : — 
Sing. 02, cow (C.). old man (M.). flesh (F.). bone (N.). force (F.). Swine (C.). 


N., V. b6s senex card os is sis 

GEN. bévis senis carnis ossis vis (rare) suis 

Dat. bovi seni carni ossi vi (rare) sul 

Acc. bovem senem carnem_ os vim suem 

ABL. bove sene carne osse vi sue 

Plur. cattle strength 

N.,A.,V. bovés _—_ senés carnés ossa virés sués 

GEN. boum senum carnium ossium  virium suum 

D., ABL. bodbus  senibus carnibus ossibus viribus  siibus 
(bibus) (suibus) 


5. Case Forms. 

62. The LocaTIveE form for nouns of the third declen- 
sion ends in the singular in -I or -e: as, rtiri, 2” the country; 
Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage, in the plural in -ibus: 
as, Trallibus, at 7valles. 

NOTE. — The Locative singular in -e appears to have been first used in poetry. 


a. An old ablative is found ending in -d¢ as, conventiGnid, dicta- 
téred (cf. praedad, § 36. /; Gnaivod, S40. g; magistratiid, § 70. %). 
6. Greek Forms. 

63. Many nouns originally/ Greek — mostly proper 
names — retain Greek forms of inflection. 

a. Stems in in- (i long): delpliinus, -I (M.), has also the form 
delphin, -inis; Salamis, -is (F.), has acc. Salamina. 

6. Most stems in id- (nom. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems : 
as, tigris, -idis (-idos) or-is; acc. idem (-ida) or-im (-in) ; abl. -ide 
or I. But many, including most /feminine proper names, have acc. 
-idem (-ida), abl. -ide, — not -im oF -I. (These stems are irregular also 
. in Greek.) 

c. Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative: as, Agamem- 
nén (or AgamemnS), -Snis, accusative -dna. 

d. Stems in ont- form the nom. in -6n: as, horiz6n, Xenoph6n ; 
but a few are occasionally pp into Sn- (nom. -6): as, Dracé, 
-Gnis. 

é. Stems in ant-, ent-, have the nom. in -As, -Is: as adams, -antis; 
Simois, -entis. So a few in tnt- (contracted from o&nt-) have -is: 
as, Trapeziis, -iintis. Occasionally the Latin form of nominative is also 
found: as, Atlans, elephans, as well as Atlas, elephas. 


34. Etymology: Declension of Nouns. [$$ 63-65. 


J; Many Greek nouns (especially in the poets) have gen. -3s, acc. -4; 
plur. nom. -€s, acc. -As: as, 46r, aethér, cratér, hér6s (-dis), lampas 
_ (Adis or -idos), lynx (-cis or -cds), nais (-idos), Orpheus (-eos: 
see § 43). 

g. A few in -ys have acc. -yn, voc. -y, abl. -yé: as, chelys, -yn, 
-y ; Capys, -yos, -yi, -yn, -y, -yé. 

Ah. Several feminine names in -6 have gen. sing. -itis; all the other 
cases ending in -6; they may also have regular forms: as, Did6, gen. 
Didonis or Didtis; dat. Diddni or Did6, etc. 

z. Several Greek forms are irregularly retained in the vocative: as, 
eutaes voc. Panthi; Orpheus, Orpheu; Atlas, Atla; oe 
Daphni; Periclés, Periclé (cf. § 43). 


64. Some of these forms are seen in the following 








examples :— 

Sing. Zero(M.). forch(¥.). dbase(F.). tiger (C.). naiad (F.). lyre (F.). 
Stem hér6- lampad- basi- tigrid- (tigri-) naid- chely- 

N., V. hér6s lampas basis tigris nais chelys 

GEN. hérdis lampados _baseds tigris (idos) naidos 

Dat. hérot lampadi basi tigri naidi 

Acc. hérda_ lampada basin tigrin(ida) naida_ chelyn 

ABL. hérde  lampade basi tigri(ide) naide(¥V.chely) - 

Plur. 

N., V. héroés lampadés_ basés tigrés naidés 

GEN. hér6um lampadum basium(e6n) tigrium naidum 

D.,A.1 hérdibus lampadibus basibus tigribus ndidibus 


Acc. hérodas lampadas_ basis (@is) __ tigris (idas) naidas 

. PROPER NAMES. 
Nom. Atlas Dids Simois Capys Daphnis 
GEN. Atlantis Diddnis (iis) Simoentis Capyos Daphnidis 
Dar. Atlanti Didoni (6) Simoentl Capyi  Daphnidi 
Acc. Atlanta Diddnem(6) Simoenta Capyn Daphnim (in) 
Voc. Atlas(a&) Didé Simois Capy Daphnf 
ABL. Atlante Didone (6) Simoente Capye Daphni 


_ NOTE.— The regular Latin forms can be used for most of the above. 


¢7- Rules of Gender. 
65. The following are general Rules for the Ceather of 
nouns of the third declension, classed according to the 
termination of the nominative. 





1 Dative, hé6r6isin (once only). 


§§ 65, 66.] Third Declension. 35 


a. Masculine endings are -6, -or, -6s, -er, -Es (gen. -idis, -itis). 
6. Feminine endings are -As (gen. -atis), -és (gen. -is), -is, -ys, -x, 
-s (following a consonant) ; also, -d6, -g6, (gen. -inis), -i6 (abstract 
and collective), and -iis (gen. -iidis, -iitis). 
_¢ Neuter endings are’-a, -e, -I, -y; -c, -l, -t; -men (gen. -minis) ; 
-ar, -ur, -lis (gen. -eris, -oris). 


66. The following are general Rules for the Gender of 
nouns of the third declension, classed according to their stems. 


a. VOWEL-STEMS. — Stems in i-, having -8 in the nominative, are 
Feminine, except those mentioned below (§ 67. a). Those having 
-6 in the nominative and those in -al and -ar (which have dropped 
the -e) are neuter. 

4. Liguip-STEMs. — Stems in 1- are Masculine, except sil, fel, mel, 
and sometimes sal (N.). 

Those in min- are Neuter, except hom6, ném6, flamen (m.). Others 
in in- are masculine, except pollen, unguen (N.). Those in €n- are 
masculine. Those in din-, gin-, i6n-, abstract and collective nouns, are 
feminine. Others in Gn-, with card6, marg6, Grd6, iinid, sénid, 
quaterni6, are masculine. 

Those in r- preceded by a short vowel are Neuter, except about 
30 given below (§ 67. 4). Those in r- preceded by a long vowel are 
masculine, except soror, uxor, gl6s, telliis (F.); criis, itis, pis, riis, 
tiis (thiis) (N.), in which the long vowel is due to contraction. 

¢. LABIAL STEMS (no neuters).— Stems in b- and m- are Feminine, 
except chalybs. Stems in p- are chiefly masculine (exceptions below, 
§ 67.¢). 

ad. LINGUAL STEMS.— Stems in &4d-, 6d-, id-, id-, aud-, nd-, are 
Feminine, except dromas, vas (vadis), pés, quadrupés, obses, 
praeses, lapis (M.). Those in 4t-, iit-, are feminine, except patrials 
(as Arpinas), and the masc. plur. penatés and optimatés. Those in 
éd-, 6t-, are masculine, except mercés and quiés with its compounds 
(F.). Those in &t-, it-, are masculine, except abiés, merges, seges, 
teges (F.), and those which are common by signification. Those in 
at- are neuter; those in nt- various (see list, § 67. d); those in It., 
rt-, feminine. (For a few isolated forms, see list, § 67.) 

é. PALATAL STEMS. — Stems in c- preceded by a consonant or tong 
vowel are Feminine, except calx, decunx, phoenix, storax, vervéx 
(m.). Those in c- preceded by a short vowel are chiefly masculine (for 
exceptions, see list, § 67. ¢); those in g-, masculine, except [ffrix], 
léx, phalanx, s¥rinx ; also nix (nivis) (F.). 


36 Etymology: Declension of Nouns. [§ 67. 


67. The following are the Forms of Inflection of nouns 
of the Third Declension, classed according to their Stems: 


a. VOWEL-STEMS. 

6s, -is: about 35 nouns (see list, § 51. a), feminine, except tudés, vatés, 
verrés, M. 

is, -is: about 100 nouns, chiefly feminine, as /@/s, Dellis. 

Exc. — aedilis, amntis, anguts, C.,anndalis, antés (pl.), asszs, axis, 
buris, callis, C., canalis, C., canis, C., cassis, caults, civis, C., clints, 
C., collis, crinis, C., énsis, fascis, finis, C., follis, fiinis, C., fustis, 
hostis, C., ignis, tuvents, C., lactés (pl.), C., darés (pl.), manés (pl.), 
ménsts, molaris, natalis, orbis, painis, pedis, C., piscis, postis, 
sentis, C., Sodalis, testis, C., torris, unguis, vectis, vepreés (pl.), C., 
vermis, M. [Those marked Cc. are sometimes feminine; the rest 
are masculine. ] 

-6, -is: upwards of 20 nouns, all neuter, as mare, cudile. 

-Al, -Alis ; -Ar, aris: 24 neuter, with several used only in the plural, as 
animal, Saturnalia (see list, § 53. ¢; for those in -ar, -Aris, see 
Liquid Stems). 

-ér, -ris: zmber, linter, ater, venter,—all M. except “nter, which is 
commonly F.’ [For other apparently consonant stems, see below. ] 

PECULIAR. — gris, gruis, F.; rhiis, rhois (acc. rhum), M.; sis, 
suis, C., hérds, hérdis, M.3 misy, -yos, F.3 OXYS, -yos, F.; cinnabari, 
gummi, sinapi, N. (indecl.) ; chelys, -yn, , F-; 508, bovis, C. 


d. LIQUID-STEMS. 


-l, -lis: g nouns, masculine, as cémsul, sol, except si/, and (sometimes) 
sal, N. 

-6n, -6nis: [{rén], splén, M 

én, -énis: H/ymén, M 

én, -inis: 10 nouns, M., as /ibicen; except pollen, unguen, gliten, 
sanguen, N 

-mén, -minis (verbal), as Zgmen; about 60 nouns, N.; but //den, M. 

-6n, -Snis (Greek): candn, daemon, gndmon, M.; aéddn, alcyon, ancon, 
sindon, F 

-6, -Gnis: about 70 nouns, all masculine, as sermd}; with many ware 
names, as Czcerd. 

-i6, iSnis (material objects, etc.), as ugid: about 30 nouns, masculine. 

id, -idnis (abstract and collective), as /egid, regio: upwards of 180, 
feminine, including many rare verbal abstracts. 

-6, -inis: homo, turbo, némd, Apollo, M. 











§ 67.] | Third Declension. | 2 Se 


-d6, -dinis: nearly 50 nouns, as gvandé, feminine except cardd, Ordo, M. 
-g6, -ginis: about 40 nouns, as compago, feminine; with margé, M. or F. 


Ar, 
-6r, 


-bs, 


-Aris: baccar, tubar, nectar, N.; lar, salar, M. 

-ris: accipiter, frater, pater, M., mater, F. 

-6ris (mostly Greek): cratér, haltér, prestér, M., vér, N. 

-6ris: d@ér, aethér, M 

ris: acifénser, agger, duser, asser, aster, cancer, carcer, later, 
passer, vesper, vomer, M.; mulier, F.; acer, cadaver, cicer, 
laver, papaver, piper, siler, siser, stiber, tuber, tuber, uber, 
verber, N 

-6ris: Cerés. F. 

ris: cinis, cucumis, pulvis, vomits, M. 

(-6s), -Gris: nearly 70 nouns (besides many denoting the Agent, 
formed upon verb-stems), as favor, orator, all M. except soror, 
uxor, F. 

-Sris: castor, rhétor, M.; arbor, F.; ador, aeqguor, marmor, N. 

-Gris: los, mds, rds, M.; glos, F.; 05, N. 

iris: fur, C. 

-tris: g masculine, as vudtur ; with fulgur, ite: murmur, sul- 
fur, N. 

-Oris: ebur, femur, tecur, robur (-us), N 

-Eris: 20 neuter, as genus; also, Venus, F. 

-Oris: 14 nouns, as fectus, neuter, except /epus, M 

-iris: mis, M.; ¢ellis, F.; cris, ttis, pits, rts, tus (this) N. 

PECULIAR. — Anz0, -ténts; delphin, -inis; sanguts (-en), -ints ; 
Senex, Senis, M.3; Card, carnis, F.; aes, aeris; far, farris; fel, 
fellis; mel, mellis; tter, itineris; tecur, tecindris (decoris), N.; 
glis, gliris, M. 

¢. LABIAL. 
-bis: chalybs, M.; plébs, trabs, urbs, F.; scobs, scrobs, C.+ 


-ms, -mis: /zems (often written Azemps), F. 


“ps, 


-As, 


-pis: 15 nouns, masculine, as princeps; except [tdaps], merops, 
ops, stips, ¥.; forceps, stirps,? 
ad. LINGUAL. 


-adis (mostly Greek): 14 nouns, feminine, as /ampas; except 
dromas, Vas, M. 


-68, -6dis: cupés, hérés, M.; mercés, F.; also, praes, praeats. 


-6s, 


Edis: és, gquadrupés, M.; compés, F. 


-6s, -idis: obses, praeses, C. 





1 These five were originally i-stems, 2 Originally i-stem. 


38 Etymology: Declension of Nouns. [$ 67. 


-is, idis: nearly 40 nouns (mostly Greek), as casszs, aegzs, F.; lapis, M. 

-6s, -Gdis: custds, C. 

-68, -Gtis: uepds, M.; COS, dos, F.; sacerdds, C. 

-s, -iidis: zncis, palis, subscis; with fraus, laus, peciis (-tidis), F. 

-A, -atis (Greek): nearly 20 nouns, neuter, as Aoémia. 

-As, -atis: about 20 (besides derivatives), M., satzds, F.; also, ands 
(-dtts), C. 

68, -6tis: celés, lebés, magnés, M.; guiés, requiés, inquiés, F. 

-6s, tis: ariés, pariés, M.; abiés, F. 

-6s, tis: seges, teges, F.; interpres, C. 

-6s, -itis: about 20, masculine or common, as stipes, hosfes. 

-iis, -iitis: zuventis, salts, senectis, servitis, virtis, F. 

-ns, -ndis: frdons, glans, iuglans, F. 

-ns, -ntis: nearly 20 (besides many participles used as nouns), com- 
mon, as izfans; déns, fons, mons, pons, M.; frons, géns, lens, 

R MENS, F. . ; 

-rs, -rtis (originally i-stems): ars, pars, cohors, fors, Mars, mors, 
SOrS, F. 

-¥s, -¥dis ; -s, -ntis (Greek): chlamys, F.; Atlas, -antis, M. 

PECULIAR. — @s, assis, M.; lis, litis ; nox, noctis ; puls, pultzs, 

F.; caput, -itis; cor, cordis; hépar, -atis ; 0s, ossts 3 Vas, VASTS, N. ; 
also, compounds of -fzs, -Addis, M., (foot), as trzpis ; lac, lactis, N. 


é. PALATAL. 


-ax, -Acis: anthrax, corax, fracés (pl.), fanax, scolopax, M.; fax, styrax 
(storax), F. 

-Ax, -Acis: cnddax, cordax, limax, thorax, M.; Pax, F. 

-6x, -6cis: @léx, M. or F.; vervéx, M. 

-ex, -icis: upwards of 40 nouns, masculine, as apex, vertex, except 
carex, forfex, tlex, imbrex, nex (nécis), pellex, ¥. (¢mbrexalso M.) 

-ix, cis: appendix, coxendtix, filix, fornix, larix, salix, struix, varix, ¥F. 

-Ix, -Icis: about 30 nouns, feminine, as cervix, radix; besides many 
in -trix, regular feminines of nouns of agency in -tor (§ 162. a). 

-6x, -Geis: celdx, VOX, F. 

-ux, -licis: dux, C.5 crux, nUux, F. 

-iix, -iicis: Jdalix, lix, F. 

-x, -cis: arx, calx, falx, lynx, merx (def.), F.; calx, calyx, M. 

-x, -gis: coniux (-ux), grex, rémex (gen. -igis), réx, M. orc.; [t/rax] 
(def.), lx, phalanx, F.; with a few rare names of animals. 

Other nouns in -x are m2x, nivis; nox, noctis; supellex, -ectilis, F.; onyx, 
-ychis,M. and F.; Styx, Stygts, F. 


ss 68-70. Fourth Declenstion. | 39 


FOURTH DECLENSION. 


68. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends 
in u-. This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Mascu- 
line and feminine nouns form the nominative by adding -s; 
neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but with @ 


(long). 
Nouns of the fourth declension are declined as follows :— 
hand (¥.). lake (M.). knee (N.). 
Sing. STEM manu- lacu- ; genu- 
Nom. manus lacus gent 
GEN. manus lactis gent (tis) 
Dat. manui (7) lacui (i) genial 
Acc. manum lacum gent 
Voc. manus < lacus gent 
ABL. mantt lacti gent 
Plur. 
Nom. manus lactis genua 
GEN. manuum lacuum genuum 
Dat. manibus lacubus genibus 
Acc. mants lactis genua 
Voc. mantis lactis . genua 
ABL. manibus lacubus genibus 


NOTE. — The fourth declension is only a modified form of the third. ‘The rela- 
tion is seen in the following parallel forms, unc@ntracted (of the third) and con- 
tracted (of the fourth). 


manus manuiis (ts) 
;manuis (is) manuum (um) 
manui (i) manubus (ibus) 
manum tmanues (is) 
manus tmanues (tis) 
tmanue (i) manubus (ibus) 


69. GENDER.—da. Most nouns in -us are Masculine. The following 
are Feminine: acus, anus, colus, domus, Idiis (pl.), manus, nurus, 
porticus, quinquatris (pl.), socrus, tribus, with a few names of 
plants and trees. Also, rarely, arcus, penus, specus. 

b. The only neuters are cornti, genii, pecii (§ 78. 1. ¢), veri. 


70. CasE-Forms.—a. The uncontracted form -uis (sometimes 
-uos) is sometimes found in the genitive, as senatuos; and an old 
(irregular) genitive in -I is used by some writers: as, ornati, senati. 


40 Etymology: Declenston of Nouns. — |§§ 70-72. 


6. The nominative plural has rarely the form -uus. 

c. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into -um. 

d. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural in 
-ibus: artus, partus, portus, tribus, veri; also dissyllables in -cus: 
as; lacus (but sometimes portibus, veribus). 

e. Most names of plants, and colus, azstaf, have also forms of the 
second declension. 

f. Domus, ouse, has (either originally, or by mistake) two stems end- 
ing in u- and o- (cf. gen. in -1, § 70. a), and is declined as follows :1— 


SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
Nom. domus domis 
GEN. domiis (domf., loc.) domuum (dom6rum) 
Dat. domui (dom6) domibus 
Acc. domum dom6s (domiis) 
Voc. domus domis 
ABL. dom6 (domi) domibus 


g. The only locative form of the fourth declension is domui. 
But even this is rare, and domi is almost universally used instead. 

hk. An old form of the ablative ends in -d: as, magistratiid (cf. § 
62. a). 


71. Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from verb- 
stems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tus (-sus) (cf. § 163. 4): as, 
cantus, song, CAN, can6, s7mg; casus (for cad-tus), chance, CAD, 
cad6, fall; exsulatus, etme, from exsul6, fo be an exile (exsul). 
Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy: as, 
cénsulatus (as if from ¢c6nsul6, -dre), senatus, incestus. 

a. The Supines of verbs (§ I09. ¢) are the accusative and ablative 
(or dative, perhaps both) of derivatives in -tus (sus): as, auditum, 
memorati. 

6. Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun: 
as, itissti (meS), dy (my) command; so initissii (populi), without (the 
people's) order. Of some only the dative: as, memoratui, divisui. 


FIFTH DECLENSION. 
72. The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in 
é-, which appears in all the cases. The nominative is 
formed from the stem by adding -s. 





1 The forms in parenthesis are less common. But the form domi is regulat 
as locative, though genitive in Plautus; dom6rum is poetic. 


§§ 72-74. | Fifth Declension. 4I 


These nouns are thus declined *— 


SING, thing (F.) PLUR. NG. day (M.) PLUR. faith (F.). 
STEM ré- dié- fidé- 


OM. rés rés diés diés fidés 

EN. réi rérum diéi (dié) diérum fidéi 
DaT. réI rébus diéi (dié) diébus fidét 
Acc. rem. rés diem diés fidem 
Voc. rés rés diés diés fidés 
ABL. ré rébus dié diébus fidé 


NOTE. — The 6 has been shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fidés, 
spés, rés, but in these it is found long in early Latin. 


73. GENDER.— All nouns of this declension are feminine, except 
diés (usually M.), day, and meridiés (M.), noon. Diés is sometimes 
feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed time, 
and regularly feminine when used of time in general: as, longa diés, 
a long time; cOnstitita dié, on a set day; also in the poets: as, 
pulchra diés, a fine day. 


74, CAsE-FormMs.—a. The Genitive singular anciently ended in 
-és (cf. -As of first declension, § 36.4). The genitive ending -éI was 
sometimes contracted into -6i, -I, or -6: as, dil (/En. i. 636), and the 
phrases plébi-scitum, tribiinus plébéi. An old Dative in i or 6 also 
is mentioned by grammarians. 

6. The fifth declension is only a variety of the first, and several 
nouns have forms of both: as, materia, -iés; saevitia, -iés.1_ The 
genitive and dative in -6i are rarely found in these words. 

c. The Locative form of this declension ends in -6 (cf. dative -6 
under a). It is found only in certain adverbs and expressions of time: 
as, hodié (for hoi-dié, cf. huic), to-day; perendié, day after to-mor- 
row; dié quartd (old, quarti), the fourth days pridié, the day 
before. 

d. Of nouns of the fifth declension, diés and rés only are declined 
throughout. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the 
nominative and accusative in the following: aciés, effigiés, éluviés, 
faciés, glaciés, seriés, speciés, spés.? 





1 Nouns in -iés (except diés) are original &-stems. The others are probablv 
(excepting r6s)} corrupted s-stems, like m6lés (cf. moles-tus); diés, ct. 
diurnus; spé6s (cf. sp6r5). Some vary between the fifth and the third declen- 
sion; as, requiés, satiés (satias, gen. -Atis), plébés (plébs, plébis), famé 
(famé6s, gen. -is). 

2 The forms faciérum, speciérum, speciébus, spérum, spébus, are 
cited by grammarians, also spérés, spSribus, 


42 Etymology: Declension of Nouns.  [§§ 75, 76. 


DEFECTIVE NOUNS, 


75. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular 
number only (stugularia tantum). ‘These are — 


1. Most proper names: as, Caesar, Cesar, Gallia, Gaul. 

2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass: as, aurum, 
gold; a€r, air; triticum, wheat. 

3- Abstract nouns: as, ambitid, ambition; fortitidd, courage; 
calor, heat. 


But many of these are used in the plural in some other 
sense. Thus—. 


a. A proper name may be applied to two or more persons or places, 
or even things, and so become strictly common: as, duodecim 
Caesarés, the twelve Cesars;-Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Trans- 
alpine); Castérés, Castor and Pollux; Ilovés, images of Fupiter. 

6. Particular objects may be denoted: as, aera, bronze utensils, nivés, 
snowflakes ; or different kinds of a thing: as, derés, azvs (good and bad). 

c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the 
quality, or the like: as, quaaedam excellentiae, some cases of supert- 
ority 3 Otia, periods of rest; cal6rés, frigora, ¢2mes of heat and cold. 


76. Some nouns are commonly found only in the Plural 
(pliralia tantum (cf. § 79. c)). Such are — 


1. Many proper names: as, Athénae, A¢hens, Thirii, Philippi, 
Véii, names of towns, Adelphoe (7h%e Adelphi), the name of a play; 
but especially names of festivals and games: as, Olympia, the Olympic 
Games; Bacchanalia, feast of Bacchus; Quinquatriis, festival of 
Minerva; ladi R6mAani, the Roman Games. 

2. Names of classes: as, optimatés, the upper classes; maidrés, 
ancestors ; liberi, children; penatés, houschold gods. 

3. Words plural by signification: as, arma, weapons ; artis, joints ; 
divitiae, riches 3 scalae, stairs; valvae, folding-doors ; forés, double- 
doors. 

These often have a corresponding singular in some form 
or other, as noun or adjective. 

a. As noun, to denote a single object: as, Bacchanal, a sot sacred 
to Bacchus ; optimas, az aristocrat. 

6. As adjective: as, Cat6 Maior, Cato the Elder. 

c. Ina sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scala, a ladder ; 
valva, a door; artus, a joint. 


§ 77.] Defective Nouns. 43 


77. Many nouns are defective in case-forms :— 


1. Indeclinable nouns: fas, nefas, Instar, necesse, nihil, opus 
(need), secus. 
2. Nouns found in one case only (sonoptotes): as. — 
a. In the nom. sing. glés, F. 
4. In the gen. sing. dicis, naucT, Nn. 
c. In the dat. sing. memoratui, M. (cf. § 71. 4). 
d. In the acc. sing. amussim, M. 
é. In the abl. sing. pond6, N.; mane, N. (Both also treated 
as indeclinable nouns. Of mane an old locative form 
m4ni is found.) ivissi, inifissii, mM. (§ 71. 0). 
f. In the acc. plur. Iinfitiaés, suppetias. 
3. Nouns found in two cases only (dzféotes). 
a. In the nom. and abl. sing. fors, forte, F.; astus, astii, M. 
b. In the gen. and abl. sing. spontis, sponte, F 
¢. In the dat. and acc. sing. vénul (vén6 in Tac.), vénum, M. 
d. In the acc. sing. and plur. dicam, dics, F. 
é. In the acc. and abl. plur. fords, foris, F. (cf. forés). 
4. Nouns found in three cases only (¢ripiores). 
a. In the nom., acc., and abl. sing. impetus, -um, -i (M.); 
lués, -em, -é (F.). 
d. In the nom., acc., and dat. or abl. plur. gratés, -ibus (F.). 
¢. In the nom., gen., and dat. or abl. plur. iigera, -um, -ibus 
(N., but iigerum, etc., in the sing., cf. § 78. 1. 4). 
5. Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the 
singular. 
a. Nouns found in the sing., in gen., dat., acc., abl.: dici6nis, 
I, -em, -e (F.) ; friigis, -I, -em, -e (F.) ; opis, -I (once only), 
-em, -e (F., nom. as a divinity, see § 46). . 
6. Nouns found in the dat., acc., abl.: preci, -em, -e (F.). 
c. Nouns found in the acc. and abl.: cassem, -e (F.); sordem, 
-e (F.). 
@. Nouns found in the abl. only: ambage .) 5 fauce (F.) ; 
obice (C., nom. obex rare). 
6. Nouns regular in the singular, defective in the plural. 
@. itis and ris have only ira, rira. 
6. calx, cor, c6s, crux, fax, faex, lix, nex, 5s, pax, pix, 
praes, ros, sal, s6l, tis (thiis), vas, want the genitive plural. 
¢. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of 
the plural (see § 74. @). 


44 Etymology: Declension of Nouns.  {§§ 77, 78. 


7. Nouns defective in both singular and plural. 
a. Nouns found in the nom., acc. sing.; nom., acc., abl. plur. : 
sentis, -em; -és, -ibus. 
4. Nouns found in the gen., acc., abl. sing.; nom., acc., dat., abl. 
plur.: vicis, -em, -e; -és, -ibus. 
c. Nouns found in the gen., dat., acc., and abl. sing.; gen. 
plur. wanting: dapis, -i, -em, -e. 


VARIABLE NOUNS. 
78. Many nouns vary either in Declension or Gender. 
1. In Declension (heteroclites, nomina abundantia). 


a. colus (F.), distafi; domus (F.), ouse (see § 70. f), and many 
names of plants in -us, vary between the second and fourth declensions. 

4. Some nouns vary between the second and third: as, iigerum, -1, 
abl. -e, plur. -a, -um, etc.; Mulciber, gen. -beri and -beris ; seques- 
ter, gen. -trI and -tris; vas, vasis, and vasum, -1. 

c. Some vary between the second, third, and fourth: penus, penum, 
gen. -I and -oris, abl. peni. 

ad. Many nouns vary between the first and the fifth (see § 74. 4). 

é. requiés has gen. -6tis, dat. wanting, acc. -6tem or -em ; famés has 
abl. famé (§ 57. c); piibés (piibis, piiber) (m.) has -eris, -em, -e; 
pecus has pecoris, etc., but also nom. pecii, dat. pecul; pl. pecua, 
pecuum, pecubus. 

jf. Many vary between different stems of the same declension: femur 
(N.), gen. -oris, also -inis (as from {femen); iecur (N.), gen. iecinoris, 
iocinoris, iecoris; minus (N.), pl. miinera and minia. 

2. In Gender (heterogeneous nouns). 

a. The following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in 
-um: balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum, cingulum, pileus, tergum, 


vallum, with many others of rare occurrence. 
6. The following have in the plural a different gender from the singular: ° 


balneum (N.), ath; balneae (F.), daths (an establishment). 
caelum (N.), Aeaven 3 caelds (M. acc.). 

carbasus (F.), @ sad/; carbasa (N.), saz/s (-Grum). 

délicium (N.), Aleasure; déliciae (F.), et. 

epulum (N.), feast ; epulae (F.), feast. 

frénum (N.), a dit; fréni (M.) or fréna (N.), @ bridle. 
iocus (M.), @ jest ioca (N.), ioci (M.). 

rastrum (N.), @ rake; rastri (M.), rastra (N.). 


te. 


locus (M.), Place; loca (N.), loct (M., usually ¢opzcs, spots). 


$9045 2 Variable Nouns. 46 


[For § 79. a, 6 (old edition) see § 78. 2. a, 5.) 


79 [79. ¢ in old edition]. Many nouns have irregu- 
larities of Number either in their ordinary or occasional 
use. 


a. Many nouns vary in meaning as they are found in the Singular or 
Plural: as, — 


aedés, -is (F.), temple; aedés, -ium, house. 

aqua (F.), water; aquae, a watering-place. 

auxilium (N.), Zelp; auxilia, awxliaries. 

bonum (N.), @ good; bona, property. 

carcer (M.), dungeon; carcerés, darriers (of race-course). 
castrum (N.), fort; castra, camp. 

cédicillus (M.), d2t of wood; eédicilll, ¢adbiets. 

comitium (N.), place of assembly ; comitia, an election (town-meeting). 
copia (F.), plenty; copiae, /voops. 

fidés (F.), harp-string ; fidés, lyre. 

finis (M.), end; finés, bounds, territories. 

fortiina (F.), fortune; fortiinae, Jossessions. 

gratia (F.), favor (rarely, thanks); gratiae, thanks (also, the Graces). 
hortus (M.), @ garden; horti, Aleasure-grounds. 


impedimentum (N.), Ainderance; impedimenta, daggage. 

littera (F.), /etter (of alphabet); litterae, efzsé/e. 

locus (M.), D/ace[pl.loca(N.)]; loci, ¢ofzcs. (In early writers the 
regular plur.) 


lidus (M.), short; ludi, public games. 

natalis (M.), divthday ; natalés, descent. 

opera (F.), work; operae, day-laborers (“hands”). 
[ops] opis (F.), Zelp (§ 46); opés, resources, wealth. 

pars (F.), @ part; partés, Zarz (on the stage), Jarty. 
plaga (F.), vegion ; plagae, szares. 

réstrum (N.), deak of a ship; rostra, speaker's platform. 

sal (M. or N.), salt; salés, wetticisms. 

tabella (F.), Zable ; tabellae, documents, records. 


6. The singular of a noun usually denoting an individual is some- 
times used collectively to denote a group: as, Poenus, the Carthagini- 
ans; miles, the soldiery; eques, the cavalry. 

c. Of many nouns the plural is usually, though not exclusively, used 
(cf. § 76): as, cervicés, the neck; Quirités, Romans; viscera, flesh; 
faucés, throat. 


46 Etymology: Declension of Nouns. [$§ 79, 80. 


d. The poets often use the plural number for the singular, sometimes 
for metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion: as, 6ra (for 6s), 
the face; scéptra (for garish sceptre ; silentia (for silentium), 
silence (cf. § 75. ¢). 


PROPER NAMES. 


80. A Roman had regularly three names, denoting the 
person, the gens, and the family. 


a. Thus, in the name Marcus Tullius Cicer6, we have Marcus, 
the prendmen, or personal name (like a Christian or given name) ; 
Tullius, the zdmenx (properly an adjective), z.e. the name of the gens, 
or house, whose original head was a (real or supposed) Tullus ; Cicers, 
the cdégndmen, or family name, often in its origin a nickname, —in this 
case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea. 

NOTE. — When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the 
cognomen is usually put in the plural ; as, Piblius et Servius Sullae, 

6. A fourth or fifth name? was sometimes given. Thus the complete 
name of Scipio the Younger was Piiblius Cornélius Scipié Africa- 


nus Aemilianus: Africanus, from his exploits in Africa; Aemilia- 


nus, as adopted from the A:milian gens. 

c. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but 
were known only by the zdmez of their gens. Thus, the wife of Cicero 
was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A younger daughter would 
have been called Tullia secunda or minor, and so on. 

ad. The commonest praenomens are thus abbreviated : — 


A. Aulus. - L. Liicius. Q. Quintus. 
App. Appius. M. Marcus. Ser. Servius. 
C, (G.) Gaius (Cazus) (cf.§ 6). M?. Manius. Sex. Sextus. 
Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cuezus). Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius, 
D. Decimus. N. Numerius. T. Titus. 

K. Kaes6 (Caeso). P. Publius. Ti. Tiberius. 


e. A feminine prenomen is sometimes abbreviated with an inverted 
letter: as, O for Gaia (Caza). 





1 The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these additions, 
but later grammarians invented the word 4g9n0men to express them, 


Se Nee eee ee 


ee 


§ 81.] Inflection of Adjectives. age 


Cuapter [V.— Adjectives. 
INFLECTION. 


ADJECTIVES and Participles are in general formed and 
declined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use. 
In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by 
different forms in the same word, and correspond with 
their nouns in gender, number, and case. They are (1) of 
the First and Second Declensions, or (2) of the Third 
Declension.! 


1. First and Second Declensions. 


$1. Adjectives of the first and second declensions (a- and 
o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, in the 
Feminine like stella, and in the Neuter like bellum; as, — 


bonus, good. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL, 
M. F N. M. F. N. 
Stem bono- boni- bono- 
Nom. bonus bon&a bonum boni bonae bona 
GEN. boni bonae_ boni bon6rum bondrum bon6rum 
Dat. bon6 bonae bons bonis bonis bonis 
‘Acc. bonum bonam bonum bon6s bonds bona 
Voc. bone bona bonum boni bonae bona 
ABL. bon6 bona _ bond bonis bonis bonis 





1 Most Latin adjectives and participles are either O-stems with the corre- 
sponding feminine &-stems, or i-stems. Many, however, were originally stems 
in U- or a consonant, which passed over, in all or most of their cases, into 
the i-declension, for which Latin had a special fondness. (Compare the endings 
-6s and -is of the third declension with the Greek -es and -as; navis (nom.) with 
the Greek vats; Bpaxds with brevis; cornti with bicornis; lingua, with 
bilinguis; cor, corde, corda, with discors, -di, -dia, -dium; su&vis with 
760s; feréns, -entia, with p¢épwy, -ovra.) A few, which in other languages are 
nouns, retain the consonant-form: as, vetus= ros, Comparatives also retain 
the consonant form in most of their cases. 


48 Etymology: Adjectives. {§§ 81-83 


a. The masculine genitive singular of Adjectives in -ius ends in -ii, 
and the vocative in -ie; not in -i, as in Nouns (cf. § 4o. 4,¢): as, 
Lacedaemonius, -ii, -ie. 

NOTE, — The possessive meus, my, has the vocative masculine mi (cf. § 98. 3). 


$2. Stems ending in ro. preceded by € or a consonant (also satur) 
form the masculine nominative like noun-stems in ro- of the second 
declension (cf. puer, ager, § 38). They are thus declined : — 


miser, wretched. niger, dlack. 
Sing. Stem misero-, ii-, o- nigro-, H-, o- 
N. miser misera miserum niger nigra nigrum 
G. miseri miserae _miserT nigri nigrae _—nigri 
D. miserd miserae miserd nigr6 nigrae  nigr6 
Ac. miserum miseram miserum nigrum nigram nigrum > 
V. miser misera miserum niger nigra nigrum 
Ab. miser6 misera miser6 nigrd nigra nigr6 
Plur. | 
N. miseri miserae _— misera nigri nigrae nigra 
G. miser6rum miserarum miser6rum nigr6rum nigrarum nigr6rum 
D. miseris miseris miseris nigris nigris _ nigris 
Ac. miser6s  miseras misera nigr6s nigraés nigra 
V. miseri miserae = misera nigri nigrae nigra 
Ab. miseris miseris miseris nigris _—inigris nigris 


a. Stems in 6ro- (as pr6cérus), with mGrigérus, propérus, have 
the regular nominative masculine in -us. 

6. Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, prosper 
(also prosperus), satur (-ura, -urum), tener, with compounds of 
-fer and -ger: as, saetiger, -era, -erum, Jr7stle-bearing; also, usually, 
dexter. In these the e belongs to the stem; but in dextra it is often 
omitted: as, dextra manus, the right hand. 

c. Like niger are declined aeger, ater, créber, faber, glaber, 
integer, liidicer, macer, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, 
sinister, taeter, vafer; also the possessives noster, vester (p. 64. 3). 

d. The following feminines lack a masculine singular nominative in 
classic use: cétera, infera, postera, supera. They are rarely found 
in the singular except in certain phrases: as, poster6 dié, the next day. 


NOTE.—A feminine ablative in -6 is found in a few Greek adjectives: as 
lectic& octophor6 (Verr. v. 27).. 


83. The following o-stems with their compounds have the geni- 
tive singular in -Ius (one only having -ius) and the dative in -i in all 
genders :— 


ee te 


§§ 83, 84.] 


alius (N. aliud), other. 


Inflection of Adjectives. 


nillus, 0, zone. 


sdlus, alone. 


t6tus, whole. 
allus, any. 
tinus, ove. 


49 


alter,! -terius, the other. 
neuter, -trius, mezther. 
uter, -trius, which (of two). 


Of these the singular is thus declined :— 


M. F. N. M. F. N. 
Nom. tinus tina tinum uter utra utrum 
GEN. inius inius' inius utrius utrius utrius 
DaT. tini uni uni utri utri utri 
Acc. inum tnam = tnum utrum utram utrum 
ABL. ind ina ind utrd utra utrd 
Nom. alius alia aliud 2 alter altera alterum 
GEN. alius alius  alius alterius alterius alterius 
Dat. alii alii alii alteri _alteri alteri 
Acc. alium aliam = aliud alterum alteram alterum 
ABL. alid alia alid alterd altera alterd 


a. The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus (§ 81). 

6. The i of the genitive-ending -Ius, though originally long, may 
be made short in verse. Alterius is generally accented on the ante- 
penult, as having the i permanently shortened. 

Instead of alius, alterius is commonly used, or in the possessive 
sense the adjective aliénus, delonging to another, another's. 

In compounds —as altertiter — sometimes both parts are declined, 
sometimes only the latter. Thus, alteri utri or alterutri, fo one of 
the two. 


2. Third Declension. 


Adjectives of the third declension are of ome, two, or 
three terminations. 


$4. Adjectives of the third declension having stems 
in i-— distinguished by being parisyllabic (§ 53. a) —have 
but one form for both Masculine and Feminine, and one 
for the neuter, and hence are called adjectives of two ter- 
minations. In the neuter the nominative ends in -e. 

They are declined as follows :— 





1 The suffix -ter, in alter, uter, neuter is the same as the Greek compara- 
tive suffix -repo(s), The stem of alius appears in early Latin and in derivatives 
as a@li- in the forms alis, alid (for alius, aliud), aliter, etc. The regular forms 
of the genitive and dative (as in bonus) are also found in early writers. 

2 The genitive in -Ius, dative in -i, and neuter in-d are pronominal (cf. § 10). 


Etymology: Adjectives. [§ 84. 
lévis (stem levi-), “ght. 
SINGULAR, PLURAL. 
/M., F. N. M., F. N. 

N., V. levis leve levés levia : 
GEN. levis levis levium levium 
DAT. levi levi levibus levibus 
Acc. levem leve : levis (6s) levia 
ABL. levi levi levibus levibus 


a. The following stems in ri- have the masc. nom. in -er: Acer, 
alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paltister, pedester, puter, 
saliber, silvester, terrester, volucer, and are called adjectives of 


three terminations. So also, celer, celeris, celere; and names of 
LY A 


\ months in -ber (cf. § 51. 4): as, Octdber. 
5 These are declined as follows : — 
y acer, keen. 
3 STEM icri- 
SINGULAR. : PLURAL. 

> - M. F, N. M. F. N. 

BY N., V. acer dacris dcre acrés acrés acria 
.-¥ GEN. Aacris cris cris acrium Acrium  4crium 
» ~ Dat. 4cri acri acri acribus cribus  dcribus 

~ Acc. acrem Acrem Acre - &cris (6s) Acris (és) acria 

ABL. Acri acri acri Acribus dcribus  Acribus — 


NOTE. — This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in 

early Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was some- 

_ times used for both genders: as, coetus alacris (zz.). In others, as faenebris, 

fiinebris, illustris, ligubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is no separate 
masculine form at all, Thus:— 


illustris, brilliant. 


* 

Sy Stem illustri- 

S SINGULAR. PLURAL, 

4 M., F. N. M., F. N. 
N., V. illustris illustre illustrés illustria 
GEN. _ illustris illustris illustrium _illustrium 
Dat. _ illustri illustri illustribus _illustribus 
Acc.  illustrem _illustre illustris (és) illustria 
ABL. _ illustri illustri illustribus _illustribus 


6. CaSE-Forms. — Adjectives of two and three terminations, being 
true i-stems, retain in the ablative singular -i, in the neuter plural -ia, in 
the genitive plural -ium, and in the accusative plural regularly is (see 
§ 55 and p. 30, n. 2). But the forms of some are doubtful. 


NOTE. — For metrical reasons, an ablative in -e sometimes occurs in poetry, 


- 





S§ 84, 85.] Inflection of Adjectives. $1 


¢. celer, swzft, when used as a noun, denoting a military rank, has 
celerum in the genitive plural. The proper name Celer has the abla- 
tive in -e. 


85. The remaining adjectives of the third declension 
are Consonant-stems; but all except Comparatives have 
the form of i-stems in the ablative singular -3, the nomi- 
native, accusative and vocative plural neuter -ia, and the 
genitive plural -ium. In the other cases they follow the 
rule of Consonant-stems. 


NOTE.— The ablative singular of these words often has -e. 


These adjectives (except comparatives) have the same nominative 
singular for all genders, and hence are called adjectives of one termina- 
tion.’ All except stems in 1- or r- form the nominative singular from 
the stem by adding -s. 

a. Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows : — 


“he atr6x, fierce. egéns, needy. 
St. atric- St. egent- 

Sing. M., F. N. M., F. N. 
N., V. atr6x egéns 
GEN. atrocis egentis 
Dat. atroci egenti 
Acc.  atrdcem atrox egentem egéns 
ABL. atréci or atroce egenti or egente 
Plur. 
N., V. atriécés atrocia egentés egentia 
GEN. atrocium egentium 
Dat. atrocibus egentibus 
Acc.  atrécis (6s) atrdcia egentis (6s)  egentia 
ABL. atrocibus egentibus 





1 The regular feminine of these adjectives, by analogy of cognate languages, 
would end in -ia: this form does not appear in Latin adjectives, but is found in the 
abstracts 2mentia (from 4méns), désidia (from déses), sOcordia (from 
s6cors), etc., and in proper names, as Fl6rentia (cf. Greek pépouca for pepovT-ia). 
The neuter would regularly have in the nominative and accusative singular the 
simple stem, as caput, cor(d-), Aléc, Greek pépov(t-); but in all except liquid 
stems the masculine form in -8 has forced itself not only upon the neuter nominative, 
but upon the accusative also, where it is wholly abnormal, 


J OAM Ma eh 


erro 


52 Etymology: Adjectives. [§ 85. 
. Other examples are the following : — 
concors, harmonious. iéns, going. par, egual. 

STEM concord- eunt- pir- 
Sing. M., F. N. M/F. N. MyF. N. 
N., V. concors iéns Kor 
GEN. concordis untis paris 
Dat. concordi eunti pari 
Ace. concordem concors euntem iéns parem_ par 
ABE. concorde eunte (i) part 
Plur. 

_N,, V. concordés concordia euntés euntia parés_ paria 
GEN. concordium euntium parium 
D., ABL. concordibus euntibus paribus 
Acc. concordis (és) concordia  euntis (6s) euntia paris (és) paria 

praeceps, eadlong. dives, rich. tiber, fertile. 
STEM praecipit- divit- tiber- 
Sing. M., F. N. M., F. N. M,, F. N. 
N., V. aeceps dives iiber 
GEN. praecipitis divitis uberis 
Dat. praecipiti diviti uberi 
Acc. praecipitem _ praeceps divitem dives iberem iber 
ABL. praecipiti divite iibere 
Piur. . 
N., V. praecipités praecipitia divités [ditia] irberés  iibera 
GEN. praecipitium 1 divitum uiberum 
D., ABL. praecipitibus divitibus uberibus 
Acc. praecipitis(@s) praecipitia divitis(és) divitia tiberés ibera 
vetus, old. 
Stem veter- (for vete°s-) 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
M., F. N. M., F. N. 

N., V. vetus veterés vetera 

GEN. veteris veterum 

Dat. veteri veteribus 

Acc veterem vetus veterés vetera 

ABL. vetere veteribus 


NoTE,— Of these vetus is originally an 8-stem. 


In most 8-stems the r has 


intruded itself mto the nominative also, as-bi-corpor (for bi-corpos), dégener 


(for d6-genés). 


c. A few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine 
form in -a: as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative Iin6 Sdspita. 





1 Given by vrammarians. but not found. 


§§ 86, 87.] Inflection of Adjectives. 53 


3. Comparatives. 
$6. Comparatives are declined as follows : — 


melior, detter. pliis, ore. 
STEM melior- for melios- plir- for pliis- 

Sing. M.,, F. N. M., F. N. 
N., V. melior melius oe pliis 
GEN. melidris ae pliris 
Dart. melidri —_— aoe 
Acc. melidrem melius — pliis 
ABL. melidre ov melidri —- plire 
Plur. 
N., V. melidrés meliéra plirés plira 
GEN. melidrum - plirium 
Dat. melidribus pliribus 
Acc. melidris(és) meliora pliris (és) plira 
ABL. melidribus pliribus 


a. The stem of comparatives properly ended in os-; but this became 
or- in all cases except the neuter singular (N., A., V.), where 8 is retained, 
and 6 is changed to ti (cf. hon6r, -Gris; corpus, -dris). Thus com- 
paratives appear to have two terminations. 

4. The neuter singular pliis is used only asa noun. The geritive 
(rarely ablative) is used as an expression of value (cf. § 252. a). The 
dative is not found in classic use. The compound complirés, severa/, 
has sometimes neuter plural compliria. 

All other comparatives are declined like melior. 


4. Case-Forms. 


$7. In adjectives of Consonant stems the following 
Case-forms are to be remarked :— 


a. The Ablative singular commonly ends in -1; but adjectives used as 
nouns (as superstes, survivor) have -e. Participles in -ns used as 
such (especially in the ablative absolute, § 225), or as nouns, regularly 
have -e; but participles used as adjectives have regularly -1. 

The following have uniformly -I: 4méns, anceps, concors (and 
other compounds of cor), c6nsors (but as a substantive, -e), dégener, 
hebes, ingéns, inops, memor (and its compounds), par (in prose), 
perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres. 

6. In the following, -e is the regular form of the ablative: caeles, 
compos, [{déses], dives, hospes, pauper, particeps, princeps, 
superstes, sospes; also in patrials (see § 54. 3) and stems in 4t-, 
it-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as adjectives. 


54 Etymology: Adjectives. [S§ 87, 88. 


c. The genitive plural ends commonly in -ium. The accusative — 


plural regularly ends in -is, even in comparatives, which are less inclined 
to the i-declension. 

d. The genitive plural ends in -um:— 

1. Always in dives, compos, inops, particeps, princeps, praepes, 
supplex, and compounds of nouns which have -um: as, quadru-pés, 
bi-color. 

2. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in-ns: as, silentum con- 
cilium, @ council of the silent shades (Virg.). 

é. In vetus (gen. -Eris), piibes (gen. -éris), tiber (gen. -&ris), 
which did not become i-stems, the endings -e (abl. sing.), -a (neut. 
nom. acc. plur.), -um (gen. plur.) are regular. (Uber has also in abl.) 

Jf. 1. Several adjectives vary in declension: as, gracilis (-us), 
hilaris (-us), inermis (-us), bicolor (-6rus). 

2. A few are indeclinable: as, damnas, friigi (really a dat. of ser- 
vice, see § 233), néquam (originally an adverb). 

3. Several are defective: as, (z)exspés (only nom.), exléx (exlégem) 
(only nom. and acc. sing.), pernox (pernocte) (only nom. and abl. 
sing.); (4) primGris, séminecT, etc., which lack the nom: sing. 

4. Potis is often used as an indeclinable adjective, but sometimes has 
pote in the neuter. 

5. Special Uses, 


88. The following special uses are to be observed : — 


a. Many adjectives have acquired the meaning and construction of 
nouns: as, amicus, a friend; aequalis, a contemporary; maibrés, 
ancestors (see p. 47, head-note, and § 188). 

4. Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in the 
masculine and feminine. These may be called adjectives of common 
gender, Such are aduléscéns, youthful; [{déses], -idis, slothful; 
inops, -opis, oor; sdspes, -itis, safe. Similarly, senex, old man, 
and iuvenis, young man, may be called masculine adjectives. 

c. Many nouns may be used as adjectives. as, pedes, a footman 
or on foot (see § 188.@). Such are especially nouns in -tor (m.) and 
-trix (F.), denoting the agent (§ 162. a): as, victor exercitus, the 
conquering army; victrix causa, the winning cause. 

d. Certain forms of many adjectives are regularly used as adverbs. 
These are, the accusative and ablative of the neuter singular (§ 148. d, e) : 
as, multum, mult6, wwch; the neuter singular of comparatives (see 
§ 92): as, melius, detter ; levius, more lightly. 


NoTE, — Adverbs ending in -6 and -ter were also once case-forms: as, C&ré, 
dearly, leviter, lightly; &cerrimé, most eagerly (§ 148. a, 3). 


$89] —— \ Comparison of Adjectives. §ao 


COMPARISON. 


Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of com- 
parison: the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superla- 


tive. 
1. Regular Comparison. 


$9. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior 
(neuter -ius!), the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um) to 
the stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel: as, — 


carus, dear (st. caro-); carior, dearer; carissimus, dearest. 

levis, ight (st. levi-); levior, ighter; levissimus, lightest. 

félix, happy (st. félic-); félicior, happier; félicissimus, hapfiest. 

hebes, du// (st. hebet-); hebetior, duller; hebetissimus, di/lest. 

a. Adjectives in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus to the 
nominative. The comparative is regular: as, — 


acer, keen; acrior, acerrimus. 
miser, wretched; miserior, miserrimus. 


So vetus (gen. veteris) has superlative veterrimus, from the old 
form veter; and m&tirus, besides its regular superlative (matiris- 
simus), has a rare form mattirrimus. 

For the comparative of vetus, vetustior (from vetustus) is used. 

6. The following in -lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its vowel: 
facilis (st. facili-), difficilis, similis, dissimilis, gracilis, humilis. 
The comparative is regular: as, facilis, easy; facilior, facillimus. 

c. Compounds in -dicus (saying), -ficus (doing), -volus (willing), 
take in their comparison the forms of corresponding participles in -ns, 
which were anciently used as adjectives: as, — 


maledicus, s/anderous ; maledicentior, maledicentissimus. 
malevolus, sfiteful; malevolentior, malevolentissimus. 


ad. Adjectives in -us preceded by any vowel but u rarely have forms 
of comparison, but are compared by means of the adverbs magis, sore ; 
maximé, wzost: as,— 

id6neus, 77; magis id6dneus, maximé id6neus. 

NOTE. — But pius has piissimus, 





1 The comparative suffix (earlier -ios) is the same as the Greek -iwy, or the Skr. 
-tyans. That of the superlative (-issimus) is a double form; perhaps for -ios- 
timus (comparative and superlative), or possibly for -ist-timus (two superlatives). 
The endings -limus and -rimus are formed by assimilation (§11. /) from -timus 
and -Simus. The comparative and superlative thus formed are new stems, and 
are not strictly to be regarded as forms of inflection, 


X 


56 Etymology: Adjectives. [§§ 89-91. 


Most derivatives tn -icus, -idus, -alis, -dris, -ilis, -tilus, -undus, 
-timus, -Inus, -ivus, -Grus, with compounds (as dégener, inops) are 
also compared by means of magis and maximé. 

é. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared: as, — 

patiéns, patient ; patientior, patientissimus. 

apertus, ofen; apertior, apertissimus. 

jf. A form ot diminutive 1s made upon the stem of some compara- 
tives: as, grandius-culus, a “ttle larger (see § 164. a). 


te Tee 2. Irregular and Defective Comparison. 


\ 
| 


| 90. Several adjectives have in their comparison irregu- 
lar forms: as, — 


bonus, sehen: optimus, good, better, best. 

malus, péior, pessimus, dad, worse, worst. 

magnus, maior, maximus, great, greater, greatest. 

parvus, minor, minimus, syall, less, least. 

multus, pliis (N.) (§ 86. 4), plirimus, much, more, most. 

multi, plirés, plirimi, any, more, most. 

néquam (indecl.), néquior, néquissimus, worthless (ct. § 87. f. 2). 
friigi (indecl.), friigalior, frigalissimus, wsefu/, worthy (cf. § 87.f. 2). 
dexter, dexterior, dextimus, on the right, handy. 

Nope. — These irregularities arise from the use of different stems (cf. § 89. ¢). 


91. Some Comparatives and Superlatives appear with- 
out a Positive :!— 


a. The following are formed from stems not used as adjectives : — 


cis, citra (adv. on this side): citerior, citimus, hither, hithermost. 
in, intra (prep. zz, within): interior, intimus, zzner, inmost. 
prae, pro (prep. defore): prior, primus, former, first. 

_ prope (adv. zear): propior, proximus, zearer, next. 
altra (adv. deyond) : ilterior, iltimus, farther, farthest. 


6. Of the following the positive forms are rare, except when used as 
nouns (generally in the plural) : — 





1 The forms in -tr& and -terus were originally comparative (cf. alter), so that 
the comparatives in -terior are double comparatives. Inferus and superus are 
comparatives of a still more primitive form (cf. the English comp. in -er). 

The superlatives in -timus (-tumus) are relics of old forms of comparison; 
those in -mus like imus, Summus, primus, are still more primitive. Forms 
like eaxtrémus are superlatives of a comparative. In tact, comparison has always 
been treated with an accumulation of endings, as children say furtherer and furtherest. 


sa 


§§ 91, 92.] Comparison of Adverbs. 57 


exterus, extérior, extremus (extimus), outer, outmost. 
[inferus], inferior, Infimus (imus), dower, lowest (§ 82. d) 
[posterus], posterior, postrémus (postumus), /atier, last. 
[superus], superior, suprémus or summus, higher, highest. 


The plurals, exteri, forezguers; Inferi, the gods below; posteri, 
posterity ; superi, the heavenly gods, are common 

c. From iuvenis, youth, senex, old man (cf. § 88. 4), are tormed the 
comparatives itinior, younger, senior, older. For these, however, 
minor nati and maior nati are sometimes used (nati being often 
omitted). The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and 
maximus, with or without nati. 

NOTE. — In these phrases n&tt is ablative of specification (see § 253). 

a. In the following, one or other of the forms of comparison is wanting: 

1. The positive is wanting in déterior, déterrimus ; Scior, dcis- 
simus ; potior, acca a 

2. The comparative is wanting in bellus, caesius, falsus, fidus 
(with its compounds), inclutus (or inclitus), invictus, invitus, 
novus, pius, sacer, vafer, vetus (§ 89. a). 

3. The superlative is wanting in Actudsus, agrestis, alacer, arca- 
hus, caecus, dititurnus, exilis, ingéns, iéiinus, longinquus, obli- 
quus, opimus, préclivis, propinquus, satur, ségnis, sérus, supinus, 
surdus, taciturnus, tempestivus, teres, vicinus, and in some 
adjectives in -ilis. 

NoTE.— Many adjectives—as aureus, go/den—are from their meaning 
incapable of comparison; but each language has its own usage in this respect. 
Thus niger, glossy black, and candidus, shining white, are compared; but not 


ater or albus, meaning adso/ute dead black or white (except that Plautus once 
has &trior). 


3. Comparison of Adverbs. 


92. The comparative of Adverbs is the neuter accusa- 
tive of the comparative of the corresponding Adjective; 
the superlative is the’‘Adverb in -6 formed regularly from 
the superlative of the Adjective: as, — 

caré, dearly (from carus, dear): carius, carissimé. 

miseré (miseriter), wretchedly (from miser, wretched): miserius, 

miserrimé. 

leviter (from levis, ight): levius, levissimé. 

audacter (audaciter) (from audax, Jo/¢@): audacius, audacissim6, 

bené, well (from bonus, good): melius, optimé. 

malé, z// (from malus, dad): péius, pessimé. 


ee 


58 Etymology: Adverbs. [§§ 92, 93. 


The following are irregular or defective : — 
dit, Jong (in time); dititius, diiitissimé. 
potius, rather; potissimum, first of all, in preference to all. 
saepe, offen ; saepius, oftener, again; saepissimé. 
satis, enough; satius, preferadie. 
secus, otherwise; secius, worse. 
multum (mult6), magis, maximé, much, more, most. 
parum, vot enough, minus, /ess, minimé, /east?. 


4. Signification. 


93. Besides their regular signification (as in English), 
the forms of comparison are used as follows ; — 


a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a 
quality: as, brevior, rather short; audacior, Zoo bold. 

6. The Superlative (0f emznence) often denotes a very high degree 
of a quality without implying a distinct comparison: as, maximus 
numerus, a very great number. With quam, vel, or tiinus it denotes 
the highest possible degree: as, quam plirimi, as many as possible; 
quam maximé potest (maximé quam potest), as much as can be; 
virum tinum doctissimum, ¢e one most learned man. 

¢. With quisque, each, the superlative has a peculiar signification. 
Thus the phrase ditissimus quisque means, a// the richest (each 
richest man); primus quisque, a// the first (each first man in his 
order).? 

Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion: as, — 

sapientissimus quisque aequissim6 anim6 moritur (Cat. Maj. 

83), the wisest men die with the greatest equaniuiity. 

d. A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as 
admodum, valdé, very, or by per or prae in composition (§ 170. ¢): 
as, valdé malus, very dad = pessimus ; permagnus, very great; 
praealtus, very high (or deep). 

e. A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition: as, 
subristicus, rather clownish; or by minus, xot very; minime, not 
at all; parum, vot enough; n6n satis, not much. 

jf. The comparative maiGrés has the special signification of an- 
cestors (cf. §§ 88. a, 91. c). 

g. The comparative minGrés often means descendants. 





1 As in taking things one by one off a pile, each thing is uppermost when you 
take it. 


§ 94.] Numerals. 59 


NUMERALS. 
1. Cardinal and Ordinal. 


94. Cardinal numbers are the regular series of numbers 
used in counting. Ordinal numbers! are adjectives de- 
rived from these to express order or place. 


NoTeE.— Cardinal numbers answer the question quot? how many? Ordinal 
numbers, the question quotus ? which in order? one of how many? 


These two series are as follows :— 


CARDINAL. ORDINAL, ROMAN NUMERALS. 

I. tnus, tina, inum, o7eé. primus, -a, -um, frst. I. 
2. duo, duae, duo, fwo. secundus (alter), second. Il. 
3. trés, tria, three. tertius, third. — III. 
4. quattuor (quatuor) quartus Iv. 
5. quinque quintus Vv. 
6. sex sextus VI. 
7. septem septimus Vil. 
8. octo octavus VIII. 
g. novem nonus IX. 
Io. decem decimus. X. 
II. uindecim tindecimus XI. 
12. duodecim duodecimus XII. 
13. tredecim (decem et trés) tertius decimus XIII. 
14. quattuordecim quartus decimus XIV. 
15. quindecim quintus decimus XV. 
16. sédecim sextus decimus XVI. 
17. septendecim septimus decimus XVII. 
18. duodéviginti (octodecim) duodévicénsimus XVII. 
19. tndéviginti (novendecim) undévicénsimus XIX. 
20. viginti vicénsimus (vigénsimus) XX. 
21. viginti inus | vicénsimus primus XXI. 

(or iinus et viginti) (anus et vicénsimus, efc.) 





1 The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus) are formed by means 
of the same suffixes as superlatives. Thus decimus (compare the form infimus) 
may be regarded as the last of a series of ten; primus is a superlative of the stem 
of prG; the forms in -tus (quartus, quintus, sextus) may be compared with 
the corresponding Greek forms in -ros, and with mp@ros, superlative of mpd; 
n6nus is contracted from novimus; while the others have the regular superlative 
ending -simus, Of the exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor; and 
alter is a comparative form (compare -Tepos in Greek). The multiples of ten 
are compounds of the unit with a fragment of decem: as, viginti = dvi-ginti 
(duidecem-ti?). 


400. 
500. 
600. 
700. 
800. 
goo. 

1000. 

5000. 


10,000. 
100,000. 


Etymology: Numerals. 


CARDINAL, 


. triginta 

. quadraginta 
. quinquaginta 
. sexaginta 

. septuaginta 
. octdginta 


nonaginta 
centum 


. centum (et) tinus, efc. 


ducenti, -ae, -a 


. trecenti 


quadringenti 
quingenti 

sexcenti 

septingenti 
octingenti 

nongenti 

mille 

quinque milia (millia) 
decem milia (millia) 
centum milia (millia) 


[$ 94 
ORDINAL, ROMAN NUMERALS. 
tricénsimus XXX. 
quadragénsimus XL. 
quinquagénsimus Ss 
sexagénsimus Lx. 
septuagénsimus LXX. 
octogénsimus LXXX 
nonagénsimus XC. 
centénsimus Cc. 
centénsimus primus, ééc. cl. 
ducenténsimus cc 
trecenténsimus ccc. 
quadringenténsimus CCCC. 
quingenténsimus ID, or D. 
sexcenténsimus DC. 
septingenténsimus DCC. 
octingenténsimus DCCC. 
nongenténsimus DCCCC. 
millénsimus CID, or M. 
quinquiéns millénsimus 190. 
deciéns millénsimus CCI99. 
centiéns millénsimus CCCIDN909. 


NoTE.— The forms in -6nsimus are often written without the n: as, vicé- 
simus, etc. 


a. For the inflection of tinus, see § 83. 
of same or only. 


It often has the meaning 
The plural is used in this sense; but also, as a simple 


numeral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning: as, tina 
castra, ove camp (cf. § 95. 0). 
The plural occurs also in the phrase ini et alteri, one party and 
the other (the ones and the others). 
6. Duo,! two, and amb6, doth, are thus declined : — 


Nom. duo 

GEN. dudrum 
Dart. dudbus 
Acc. duds (duo) 
ABL. dudbus 


. duae duo 
duarum dudrum 
duabus dudbus 
duas duo 
duabus dudbus 


c. Trés, tria, three, is an i-stem, and is regularly declined like the 
plural of levis (see § 84). The other cardinal HUERBErS, up to centum 
(100), are indeclinable. 





1 The form in -O is a remnant of the dual number, which was lost in Latin, but 
is found in cognate languages. 


§§ 94, 95.] Numerals. 61 


The forms octédecim, novendecim are rare, duodéviginti, tin- 
déviginti being used instead. Similar forms for higher numbers are 
occasionally found: as, duéddéquadraginta, ¢hirty-ezght; undécen- 
tum, winely-nine. 

d. The hundreds, up to 1000, are o-stems, and are regularly declined 
like the plural of bonus. 

e. Mille, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective. 
In the plural (milia or millia, ¢housands), it is used as a neuter noun, 
with a genitive plural. Thus, cum mille hominibus, wth a thousand 
men; but cum dudbus milibus hominum, wth two thousand men. 


NoTE.— The singular mille is sometimes found as a noun in the nominative 
and accusative: as, mille hominum misit; but in the other cases only in 
connection with the same case of milia: as, cum oct6 milibus peditum 
mille equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse. 


jf. The ordinals are o-stems, and are declined like bonus, 


2. Distributives. 
95. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural 
of bonus. | 


NOTE. — These answer to the interrogative quoténi? how many of each, or at a 
time? as,— 


I. singuli, ove by one. 18. octoni déni or 100. centéni 

2. bini, /wo-and-two. duodévicéni 200. ducéni 

3. terni, trint Ig. novéni déni or 300. trecéni 

4. quaterni undévicéni 400. quadringéni 
5-quini 20. VICeni 500. quingéni 

6. séni 21. vicéni singuli, e¢c. 600. séscéni 

7. septéni 30. tricéni 700, septingéni- 
8. octoni 40. quadragéni 800. octingéni 
9g. novéeni 50. quinquagéni goo. nongéni 

Io. déni 60. sexagéni tooo. milléni 

II. tindéni 70. septuagéni 2000. bina milia 
12. duodéni 80. octégéni 10,000. déna milia 
13. terni déni, efc. go. nonagéni 100,000. centéna milia 


Distributives are used-as follows :— 


a. In the sense of so many apiece or on each side: as, singula 
singulis, ome apiece (one each to each one); agri septéna itigera 
plébi divisa sunt, ie. seven jugera to cach citizen (seven jugera each), 
ele. 





1 Or, in poetry, cum bis mille hominibus, with twice a thousand men. 


62 Etymology: Numerals. [$$ 95-97. 


6. Instead of Cardinals, to express simple number, when a noun is 
plural in form but singular in meaning: as, bina castra, fwo camps (dud 
castra would mean ¢wo forts). But the plural tinT is used (instead of 
singull), to signify ove (see § 94. a), and trini (not terni) for ree. 

c. In multiplication: as, bis bina, twice two; ter septénis diébus, 
in thrice seven days. 

d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where Jazrs 
or sets are spoken of: as, bina hastilia, two shafts (two in a set). 


3. Numeral Adverbs. 


96. The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiéns 
(quotiés), how many times, how often. 


I. semel, once. 12. duodeciéns 40. quadragiéns 
2. bis, fwéce. 13. terdeciéns 50. quinquagiéns 
3. ter, thrice. 14. quaterdeciéns 60. sexagiéns 

4. quater 15. quindeciéns 70. septuagiens 
5. quinquiéns (-€s) 16. sédeciéns 80. octdgiéns 

6. sexiéns (-és) 17. septiésdeciéns 90. nonagiéns 

7. septiéns (-€s) 18. duodéviciéns Ioo. centiéns 

8. octiéns Ig. indéviciéns 200. ducentiéns 
g. noviéns 20. viciéns 300. trecentiéns 
Io. deciéns 21. semel et viciéns, e¢c. 1000. miliéns 

II. indeciéns 30. triciéns _ 10,000. deciéns miliéns 


NOTE.— They are used, in combination with mille, to express the higher 
numbers: as, ter et triciéns (centéna milia) séstertitiim, 3,300,000 sesterces. 
Forms in -ns are often written without the n: as, quinquiés. 


4 Other Numerals. 


97. The adjectives simplex, szugle, duplex, double, two-fold, 
triplex, quadru-, quincu-, septem-, decem-, centu-, sésqui- (14), 
multi-plex, mzanzfold, are called Multiplicatives. 

a. PROPORTIONALS are: duplus, triplus, etc., ¢wce as great, etc. 

6. TEMPORALS: bimus, trimus, of two or three years’ age; biennis, 
triennis, /asting two or three years; biméstris, triméstris, of two or 
three months; biduum, biennium, a period of two days or years. 

¢. PARTITIVES: binarius, ternarius, of two or three parts. 

d. FRACTIONS: dimidia pars (dimidium), aha//; tertia pars, a third. 

NOTE. — But fractions are rcgularly expressed by special words derived from &S 
(a pound) and the numerals: as, trié6ns, a third; bés, two-thirds. 

e. Other derivatives are: tinid, wuity; binid, the two (of dice); 
primanus, of the first legion; primarius, of the first rank; Aénarius, 
a sum of 10 asses; binus (distributive), dozdle, etc. 





§ 98.] Personal and Reflexive Pronouns. 63 


CuHapTeR V.— Pronouns. 


98. Pronouns have special forms of declension. 


NOTE. — These special forms are, in general, survivals of a more primitive form 
of declension than that of nouns. 


1. Personal Pronouns. 


The Personal pronouns of the first person are ego, /, nds, we ; of 
the second person, tii, thou, vOs, ye or you. 


FIRST PERSON, 


Nom. ego, /; nos, we; 
GEN. mel, of me; nostriim (tri), of us; 
DAT. mihi (mi), fo me; n6dbis, zo us; 
Acc. mé, 72; nos, us 3 
Voc. aoe —_—— 
ABL. - m6, dy me; nobis, dy us. 
SECOND PERSON. ; 
Nom. ti, thou; vos, ye or you; 
GEN. tul, you ; vostriim, vostri; vestriim (tri) 
DAT. tibi vobis 
Acc. té vos 
Voc. ti vos 
ABL. té vobis 


a. The personal pronouns of the third person — he, she, it, they— 
are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used (see § Ior). 
6. The plural nds is often used for the singular ego; the plural v6s 
never for the singular ta. 
c. Old forms are genitive, mis, tis; accusative and ablative méd, 
téd (cf. § 70. 2). 
2. Reflexive Pronouns. 


Reflexive pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer to the 
Subject of the sentence or clause (see § 196). 

a. In the first and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal 
pronouns are used as Reflexives: as, mé contuli, / went (I betook 
myself); té laud&s, you Praise yourself; nobis persuadémus, we 
persuade ourselves, 


64 Etymology: Pronouns. [$$ 98, 99. 


&. The reflexive pronoun of the Third Person has a special form used 
only in this sense, the same for both singular and plural. It is thus 
declined : — 


GEN. sul, of himself, herself, themselves. 

Dat.  sibi, to himself, herself, themselves. 

Acc. . 86 (sésé), himself, herself, themselves. 
ABL. sé (sés6), dy himself, herself, themselves. 


Sis (genitive) and séd (accusative and ablative) are ancient. 


3. Possessive Pronouns. 


The Possessive pronouns are, for the first person: meus, my, noster, 
our; for the second person: tuus, ¢iy, your, voster, vester, your; 
for the third person: suus, fzs, her, their. These are declined like 
adjectives of the first and second declensions (see §§ 81,82). But 
meus has regularly mi (rarely meus) in the vocative singular mascu- 
line, 

Nore. — Suus is only reflexive, referring to the subject. For a possessive 
pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demon- 


strative must be used. Thus, patrem suum occidit, he killed his (own) father ; 
but patrem 6ius occidit, he killed his (somebody else's) father, 


99. In the meaning and use of the Personal, Reflexive, 
and Possessive pronouns it is to be observed that — 


a. To express Possession and similar ideas the possessive pro- 
nouns must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive 
pronouns (cf. § 197. a). Thus, my father is pater meus, never pater 
mei. 

6. The forms nostriim, vostriim, etc., are used fartitively: as, — 


inusquisque nostrim, each one of us; so 
vostrim omnium, of all of you. 

NOTE, — The forms of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the 
genitives of the possessives: mei, tui, sui, nostri, vostri, gen. sing. neuter: 
nostrim, vostriim, gen. plu. masc. or neuter contracted. me. in early and later 
Latin we find ina vestrarum, one of you (women). 

c. The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are chiefly used 
objectively (see § 213. N.): as, — 


memor sis nostri, d¢ mindful of us (me). 
mé tul pudet, / am ashamed of you. 


§$§ 99, 100. ] Demonstrative Pronouns. 65 


d. The reciprocals ove another and each other are expressed by inter 
sé or alter... alterum: as, — 


alter alterius 6va frangit, they break each other's eggs (one... of 
the other). 

inter sé amant, they love one another (they love among them- 
selves). 


e. The preposition cum, wth, is joined enclitically with the ablative 
of the personal and reflexive pronouns: as, técum loquitur, he talks 
with you. 

f.jTo the personal and reflexive (and sometimes to the pos- 
sessive) pronouns certain .enclitics are joined for emphasis: -met 
to all except ti (nom.) ;{-te to ti (tite, also tiitimet); -pte to 
the ablative singular of the adjectives, and in early Latin to the 
others: as, — 


vosmetips6s préditis, you betray your own very selves. 
sudpte pondere, dy zfs own weight. 


4. Demonstrative Pronouns. 


100. The Demonstrative pronouns are hic, ¢7s; is, ille, iste, 
that ; with the Intensive ipse, se/f, and Idem, same.1 

a. Ille is a later form of ollus (olle), which is sometimes used 
by the poets; a genitive singular in -i, -ae, -I, occurs in ille and 
iste. | 

6. Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste, etc., 
with the entire loss of the first syllable; and the first syllable of ipse 
and ille is very often used as short in early poetry. 

c. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (for -pte, from the same root 
as potis) (cf. § 99. f), meaning se/f The former part was originally 
declined, as in reapse (for ré eapse), zz fact. An old form ipsus 
occurs. 

Idem is the demonstrative is with the affix -dem. 





1 These demonstratives are combinations of O- and i-stems, which are not 
clearly distinguishable. Hic is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstra- 
tive enclitic -C@, which appears ir full in early Latin (hice), and when followed by 
the enclitic ne (hicine). In most of the cases -ce is shortened to -c, and in many 
lost; but it is often appended for emphasis to forms that do not regularly retain it 
(as hfiiusce). In early Latin -c alone is retained in some of these (h6Grunc). 
Ille and iste are sometimes found with the same enclitic: illic, illaec, illic; 
also ill6c (acc, or abl.: § tor. p. 67). 


66 Etymology: Pronouns. [§ 101. 


101. The demonstratives are used either wth nouns 
as Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns. From their signifi- 
cation they cannot (except ipse) have a vocative. They 
are thus declined : — 











hic, thzs. is, that. 
Siig. M. F, N. M. F, N. 

M. hic haec hdc is ea id 
GEN. hiius hiius  hiius éius éius éius 
Dat. huic huic huic ei ei el 
Acc. hune hanc hdc eum eam id 
ABL. h6dc hac hdc ed ea ed 
Plur 
Nom. hi hae haec I (el) eae ea 
GEN. h6rum harum h6drum eOrum earum edrum 
Dat. his his his eis or is 
Acc. hés has haec eds eas ea 
ABL. his his his eis or is 
Sing. ille, that. ipse, se/f. 

Nom. ille illa illud ipse ipsa ipsum 
GEN. illius illius illius ipsius ipsius ipsius 
Dat. illi illi illi ipsi ipsi ipsi 
Acc. ilum  illam  illud ipsum ipsam ipsum 
Voc. ipse ipsa ipsum 
ABL. illd ila i116 ipsd ipsa ipsd 
Plur 
Nom. illi illae illa ipsi ipsae ipsa 
GEN. ill6rum illarum ill6rum ipsOrum ipsarum ips6rum 
Dat. illis illis illis ipsis ipsis ipsis 
Acc. illés illas illa ipsds ipsas ipsa 
Voc. ipsI ipsae ipsa 
ABL. illis illis illis ipsis ipsis ipsis 
idem, the same. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
N. Idem eadem idem Idem (ei-) eaedem eddem 
G. 6iusdem Giusdem Giusdem | eGrundemearundem e6rundem 
D. eidem eidem eidem eisdem or isdem 
Ac.eundem eandem idem eOsdem ea&sdem eAdem 
AB.eGdem eadem eddem eisdem or isdem 





iste, ista, istud, ¢iaz (yonder), is declined like ille. 


§§ 101, 102. | Demonstrative Pronouns. 67 


- Tle and iste are combined with the demonstrative -ce. Thus:— 


Sing. M. F, N. M. F. N. 

Nom. illic illaec ill6c (illic) istic istaec ist6c (istic) 
Acc. illune illane illdc (illtic) istunc istanc ist6c (istiic) 
Ast. illéc illac illoc ist6c istac istdc 

Plur. 

N., Acc. —— —— illaec — —  istaec 


a. For the dative and ablative plural of hic the old form hibus is 
sometimes found; haec occurs (rarely) for hae. 

6. The normal forms illi, ist? (gen.), and illae, istae (dat.), are 
found; also the nominative plural istaece, illaece (for istae, illae). 

c. The plural forms If, is, Idem, Iisdem, are often written it, iis, etc. 
Obsolete forms are eae (dat. for eI), and eabus or Ibus (dat. plur. 
for is). For eI are found also éi and 61. 

d. By composition with ecce or 6n, dehold! are formed eccum, 
eccam, ecc6s, eccads; eccillum, éllum, éllam, éllés, éllas; 
eccistam. These forms are dramatic and colloquial. 

e. The combinations hiiusmodi (hiiiuscemodt), éiusmodi, etc., 
are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, such: as, rés 
éiusmodi, such a thing (a thing of that sort: compare § 215). 


* 102. In the use of these demonstratives it is to be 
observed that — 


a. Hic is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, thought. 
or on the written page). It is hence called the demonstrative of the 
first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes 
for “the latter” of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writ- 
ing; more rarely for “the former,” when that, though more remote oz 
the written page, is nearer the speaker in ¢ime, place, or thought. 

b. lle is used of what is remote (in time, etc.) ; and is hence called 
the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to mean 
“the former” (see under hic, @); also (usually following its noun) 
of what is famous or well-known; often (especially the neuter illud) 
to mean “ the following.” 





1 The intensive -ce is also found in numerous combinations: as, hfiiusce, 
hunce, hé6runce, harunce, hésce, hisce (cf. n., p. 65), illfusce, Isce; also 
with the interrogative -ne, in h6cine, hodscine, istticine, illicine, etc. The 
intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nom.), eumpse, eampse, edpse, 


eapse (abl.), 


68 ' Etymology: Pronouns. [$$ 102-104, 


c. Iste is used of what is dJetween the two others in remoteness: 
often in allusion to the person addressed,—hence called the demon- 
strative of the second person. It especially refers to one’s opponent (in 
court, etc.), and frequently implies a kind of contempt. 

d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and does not denote 
any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards 
explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a personal 
pronoun (see § 98. 1. @) ; and is often merely a correlative to the relative 
qui: as,eum quem, ove whom; eum cOnsulem qui n6n dubitet 
(Cic.), a consul who will not hesitate. 

e. Ipse may be used with a personal pronoun of either person, as 
n6s ipsi (n6smetipsi), we ourselves ; or independently (the verb con- 
taining the pronoun, or the context implying it), as ipsI adestis, you 
are yourselves present ; or with a noun, as ipsi fontés (Virg.), the very 
fountains. 


NotTr.—In English, the pronouns Aimse//, etc., are used both intensively (as, 
_ he will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself): in Latin the former 
would be translated by ipse; the latter, by 86 or S@s6, 

f. The pronouns hie, ille, and is are used to point in either direction, 
back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be 
mentioned. The neuter forms are especially used to refer to a clause, 
phrase, or idea: as, est illud quidem vel maximum animum vidére 
(Tuscul. i. 52), that ts in truth a very great thing to see the soul. 
> 


5. Relative Pronouns. 
103. The relative pronoun quf, who, which, is thus de- 
clined : — 


SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
Nom. qui quae quod qui quae quae 
GEN. ciiius ciius  ciius qu6rum quarum qudrum 
DaT. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus 
Acc. quem quam quod quos quas quae 
ABL. quo qua quo quibus quibus quibus 





6. Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns. 
104. The interrogative or indefinite quis (qui), who? 
which ? any, is declined in the Singular as follows :— 


Nom. quis (quf) quae quid (quod) 
GEN. ctiius ciiius ciiius 

DAT. cui cui cui 

Acc. quem quam quid (quod) 
ABL. qué qua n qué 


ee eee 





§104.] Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. 69 


The Plural is the same as that of the Relative. The singular quis 
is rare as an indefinite (see § 105. @). 

Norte. — The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are originally of 
the same Stem, and the forms for the most part are the same (compare § 103 with 
§ 104). The stem has two forms, Quo- and qui-.1 The interrogative sense is 
doubtless the original one. 

CAsE-FormMs.—a. The relative has always qui, quae, quod. The 
interrogative and indefinite have quis, quae, quid, substantive, and 
qui, quae, quod, adjective: as, quis vocat? who calls? quid vidés? 
what do you see? qui hom6 vocat? what man calls? quod templum 
vidés? what temple do you see? : 

NOTE. — But qui is often used without any apparent adjective force; and quis 
is very common as an adjective, especially with words denoting a person: as, qui 
nominat m6? who calls my name? quis diés fuit? what day was it? quis © 
hom6? what man? but often qui hom6? what sort of a man? nésci6 qui sis, 
f know not who you are. 

6. Old forms for the genitive and dative are qudius, quoi. 

¢. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all 
genders; but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any way), 
and in the combination quicum, wth whom, as an interrogative or an 
indefinite relative. 

d. A nominative plural qués (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. 
Phe dative and ablative quis (stem quo-) is old, but not infrequent. 

é. The preposition cum jis joined enclitically to all forms of the 
ablative, as with the personal pronouns (§ gg. ¢): as, qu6cum, qui- 
cum, quibuscum. 

NOTE, — But occasionally cum precedes as with other words: as, cum qu6d 
(Juv. 4.9). d 

jf. The accusative form quom, cum (stem quo-) is used only as a 
conjunctive adverb, meaning when or since. 

g. The adjective uter is used as an interrogative and indefinite rela- 
tive. It is declined as an adjective of three terminations (see § 83). 


es 
NOTE.— This word is probably the comparative of the stem quo-; cf. intra 
(p. 56, foot-note), and Greek wérepos. 


105. The pronouns quis and quf appear in various com- 
binations. 





1 From qui- are formed quis, quid, quem, quibus, qui (abl.); while qui, 
quae (nom.), are probably lengthened forms of qu6-, qua- (see § 32, decl. 1), 
made by the addition of the demonstrative particle i. 


70 Etymology: Pronouns. [§ 105. 


a. The adverb -cumque (-cunque) (cf. quisque) added to the 
relative makes an indefinite relative, which is declined like the simple 
word: as, quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, what- 
every. ciiuscunqué, etc. 

N OTE. — This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any relative: as, 
quéliscumque, of whatever sort; Quand6cumque (also rarely Quand6que), 
whenever; ubicumque, wherever. 

6. The interrogative form doubled makes an indefinite relative: as, 
quisquis, whoever (so utut, however, ubiubi, wherever). Of quis- 
quis both parts are declined, but the feminine is wanting in classic use: 
thus— 

Nom. quisquis (quiquT) quidquid (quicquid) 
Acc. quemquem quidquid (quicquid) 
ABL. quoqu6é quaqua qudqud 

Plur. NoM. quiqui 
D., ABL. quibusquibus 

NotTr.— This compound is rare, except in the forms quisquis, quicquid, and 
quoqu6,. The case-form Quamquam is used only as a conjunction, meaning 
although (strictly Aowever), Quiqui (nom. sing.) is an early and quaqua a late 
form. The grammarians give also a regular genitive and dative. Cuicuimodi 
is used like a genitive, but is probably locative. 

c. Indefinite compounds are the following: quidam, @, a@ certain; 
quispiam, azy; quivis, quilibet, any you please; quisquam, any at 
all. Of these the former part is declined like quis and qui, but they 
all have both quod (adjective) and quid (substantive) in the neuter. 

d. The indefinite quis, otherwise rare, is found in the compounds 
aliquis, some one, and the combinations sI quis, zf amy; né quis, Zest 
any, that none; ecquis, num quis, whether any, and a few others. 

These are declined like quis, but have generally qua instead of 
quae, except in the nominative plural feminine. The forms aliquae, 
ecquae, nominative singular feminine, occur rarely. 

NOTE. — The compounds quispiam, aliquis, and quisquam are often used 


instead of quis with si, n6, and num, and are rather more emphatic, as Si quis, 
if any one, Si aliquis, if some one, SI QUisquam, if any one (ever, cf 2). 


These compounds are thus declined :— 


Sing. aliquis, some. 

Nom.  aliquis (aliqui) aliqua aliquid (aliquod) 
GEN. aliciius 

Dat. alicui . 

Acc. aliquem aliquam aliquid (aliquod) 
ABL. aliqu6é aliqua aliqué 


ne Pome pp? on acer sy 
- =k re 


§§ 105, 106. ] Correlatives. 71 


Plur. 

Nom.  aliquY aliquae aliqua 
GEN. aliquorum aliquarum  aliqudrum 
Dat. aliquibus 

ACC. aliquiés aliquas aliqua 
ABL. aliquibus 


The forms in -quf and -quod are adjective; those in -quis and 
-quid, substantive: as, aliquod bonum, some good thing; but aliquid 
boni, something good (something of good). } 

Note. — Aliquis is compounded with ali-, old stem of alius (p. 49, foot-note). 
But the meaning o¢her usually disappears. 

é. The enclitic particle que added to the interrogative gives a uni- 
versal: as, quisque, every one, uterque, ezther of two, or doth. In this 
combination quis is regularly declined. 

In the compound tinusquisque, every single one, both parts are 
declined, and they are sometimes separated by other words. 

Quotus quisque has the signification how many, pray? oftenina 
disparaging sense. 

f. The relative and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjective 
ciiius (-a, -um), whose; and a patrial ciiias (ciliat-), of what country. 

g- Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative adjectives 
from the same stem as the interrogative. They are used as interrogative 
or relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantus, talis (§ 106). 

4. Quisquam, with illus, azy, unquam, ever, usquam, anywhere, 
are chiefly used in negative sentences, or where there is an implied 
negative, as in interrogative or conditional sentences, or after quam, 
than; sine, without; vix, scarcely: as, necquisquam ex Agmine 
tant6, and nobody from that great throng; si quisquam est timidus, 
is ego sum, zf any one zs timorous, 1am the man; sine i116 dominé6, 
without any mastery; an quisquam usquam gentium est aequé 
miser? why! zs there anybody anywhere in the world so wretched ? 

z. Quisnam is emphatic: fray, who? ecquis and numquis are 
compounded from the indefinite particle 6n and the interrogative num ; 
they mean not who, but amy in a question: as, ecquis nds videt? does 
any one see us? num quid héc dubitas, do you at all doubt this ? 


7. Correlatives. 

106. Many pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and ad- 
verbs have corresponding demonstrative, relative, interrog- 
ative, and indefinite forms. Such parallel forms are called | 
CorRELATIVES. They are shown in the following table: — 


72 Etymology: Pronouns. [$$ 106, 107. 


DEMONSTR. RELATIVE. INTERROG. INDEF, RELATIVE. INDEF. 
is, that qui, who quis? who? quisquis, whoever aliquis,;,, 
tantus,sogreatquantus quantus? (quantuscumque) aliquantus 


talis, such qualis qualis? (qualiscumque) —— 


ibi, there ubi ubi? ubiubi alicubi 
eb, thither qué quo? quéqus aliqué 

ea, that way qua qua? quaqua aliqua 
inde, thence unde unde? (undecumque) alicunde 
tum, ¢hen quom,cumquand6? (cumcumque) aliquands 
tot, so many quot quot?. quotquot aliquot 


totiés, so often quotiés quotiés? (quotiéscumque) aliquotiés 


a. The forms tot (originally toti), so many, quot, how (as) many, 
aliquot, several, totidem, as many, are indeclinable, and may take 
any gender or case: as, per tot ann6s, tot proeliis, tot imperatorés 
(Cic.), so many commanders, for so many years, in so many battles. 

6. The relative word in a pair of correlatives is often to be rendered 
simply as: thus, tantum argenti quantum aeris, as much (of) silver 
as (of) copper. 

c. A frequent form of correlative is found in the ablative qué or 
quanté, dy how much; eS or tant6, dy so much, used with compara- 
tives (rendered in English the... the)1: as,— 

qué magis cénaris, e6 longius progrederis, the more you try, 

the farther on you get (by which the more, etc., by that the 
farther). 


107. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are 
used correlatively as conjunctions : as, —_ 

ut (rel.) ... ita, sic (dem.), as (while)... so (yet). 

tam (dem.)... quam (rel.), so (as)... as. 

cum (rel.)... tum (dem.), doth...and3; while... so also; not only 
... but also. 

Compare et... et, doth...and3 aut (vel)...aut (vel), ether.... 
or; sive (seu)...sive; utrum...an, whether... or. 





1 In this phrase Zhe is not the definite article but a pronominal adverb, being the 
Anglo-Saxon py, the instrumental case of the pronoun pet, ¢hat. This pronoun 
is used both as demonstrative and refative. Thus ¢éhe...¢he corresponds exactly 
to qué ... ed. 


§§ 108—-10.] Juflection of the Verb: | Voice, Mood, Tense. 73 


CuaptTer VI.— Verbs. 


I.—INFLECTION OF THE VERB 
1. Voice, Mood, Tense. 


108. The inflection of the Verb denotes Voice, Mood, 
Tense, Number, and Person. 


a. The VoIcEs are two: Active and Passive. 

6. The Moons are four: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and 
Infinitive.? 

c. The TENSES are six, viz.:— 

1. For continued action, Present, Imperfect, Future. 
2. For completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect. 

d. PERSON and NuMBER.— There are separate terminations for 
each of the three PERSONS, — first, second, and third, —both in the 
singular and in the plural. 

2. Noun and Adjective Forms. ir 


109. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also 
included in the inflection of the Latin Verb :— 


a. Four PARTICIPLES,? viz. : — 
Active: the Present and Future Participles. 
Passive: the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive.® 
6. The GERUND: this is in form a neuter noun of the second declen- 
sion, used only in the oblique cases of the singular. A corresponding 
nominative is supplied by the Infinitive (see § 114. note). 
c. The SuPINE: see §§ 71. a and 114. 8. 


3. Defective Forms. 


110. Special forms for some of the tenses are wanting 
in certain parts of the verb: — 





1 The Infinitive is strictly a case of an abstract noun, expressing the action of 
the verb (p. 120, 7); but it plays so important a part in verbal construction, that it 
is properly treated as a part of the verb. 

2The Participles are Adjectives in inflection and meaning (see § 25. ¢), but 
have the power of Verbs in construction and in distinguishing time. 

8 The Gerundive is also used as an adjective, indicating mecessity or duty (see 
§ 113. ¢). In late use it became a Future Passive Participle. 


74 Etymology: Verbs. [$$ 110-12. 


a. The Subjunctive mood wants the Future and the Future Perfect. 
In most constructions, these tenses are supplied without ambiguity by 
the Present (or Imperfect) and the Perfect (or Pluperfect); for 
originally all tenses. of the subjunctive referred to future time. In 
some constructions the want is supplied by the future participle with 
the proper tense of the verb signifying TO BE: as, cum seciitirus 
sit, sénce he will follow. 

6. In the Passive voice in all moods the tenses of completed action 
(Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect) are supplied by the Perfect 
Participle with the present, imperfect, and future of the verb signifying 
TO BE: as, occisus est, he was killed. 

c. In the Imperative mood, the only tenses are the Present and the 
Future. 

d. In the Infinitive mood the Present (active and passive) and the 
Perfect (active) only are formed by inflection. A Future in the active 
voice is formed by the Future Participle with the infinitive signifying 
TO BE: as, amatirus esse, fo de going to love; in the passive, by 
the Former Supine with iri (infin. .pass. of ire, 4o go): as, amatum 
iri, to be about to be loved. ¥or the Perfect passive, see d above. 


ab 
Il. —SIGNIFICATION OF THE FORMS OF THE VERB. 
1. Voices. — 


111. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally 
correspond to the active and passive in English; but — 


a. The passive voice often has a Reflexive meaning: as, induitur 
vestem, “e puts on his (own) clothes; Turnus vertitur, 7urnus turns 
(himself). 

NOTE.— This use corresponds very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and is 
doubtless a survival of the original meaning of the passive ({ 118. note). 

6. Many verbs are used only in the passive form, but with an active 
or reflexive meaning. These are called DEPONENTS (dépduentia), @.2., 
verbs which have laid aside (dépénere) the active form and the passive 
meaning (see § 135). 

2. Moods. 


112. The Moons of the Latin verb are used as follows: 


a. The Indicative Mood is used for dévect assertions and interro- 
gations: as,—valésne? vale6, are you well? I am well; and also 
in some other idiomatic forms of predication. 


§ 112.] | | Moods. 3 75 


6. The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, 
conditions, and various dependent clauses. It is frequently translated 
by the English Indicative ; sometimes by means of the auxiliaries may, 
might, would, should; sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive ; sometimes 
by the Infinitive; and often by the Imperative, especially in prohzbi- 
tions. Thus— 


eamus, /et us go. 

cum vénisset, when he had come. 

adsum ut videam, / am here to see (that I may see). 

tii né quaesieris, do not thou inguire. 

ném6 est qui ita existimet, ¢here is no one who thinks so. 

beatus sis, may you be blessed. 

né abeat, Jet him not depart. 

quid morer, why should I delay? 

sunt qui putent, there are some who think. 

imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write (that I write). 

nesci6o quid scribam, / huow not what to write. 

licet e4s, you may go (it is permitted that you go). 

cave cadas, don’t fall. 

vereor né eat, / fear he will go. 

vereor ut eat, / fear he will not go. 

si moneam audiat (pres.), if 7 should warn, he would hear. 

si vocarem audiret (imperf.), 7f 7 were (now) calling, he would 
hear. 

quae cum dixisset abiit, and when he had said this, he went away. 


NoTr.— The Latin Subjunctive is often translated, formally, by means of the 
English auxiliaries may, might, could, would, etc., to distinguish it from the Indica- 
tive, because the English has no subjunctive in general use. But the Latin uses the 
subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative; and we use a colorless 
auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb with more definite 
meaning. Thus, / may write is often not scribam (subj.), but licet mihi 
scribere; / can write is possum scribere; / would write is scribam, 
scriberem, or scribere velim (vellem) ; / should write, (if, etc.), scriberem 
(si) ..., or (implying duty) oportet m6 scribere, 


c. The IMPERATIVE is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command; 
but its place is often supplied by the Subjunctive (§§ 266, 269). 

d. The INFINITIVE is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the 
subject or object of another verb (§§ 270, 271. @). In special con- 
structions it takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by 
that mood in English (see “ Indirect Discourse,” § 335 ff.). 


NOTE, — For the Syntax of the Moods, see § 264 ff. 


76 Etymology: Verbs. [§ 113, 


3. Participles. 


113. The ParticipLes of the Latin verb are used as 
follows :— 


a. The Present participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same 
meaning and use as the English participle in -ING: as, vocans, calling; 
legentés, reading. (For its inflection, see egéns, § 85). 

6. 1. The Future participle (ending in -tirus) is oftenest used to ex- 
press what is Zkely or about to happen. ! 

NOTE,— When thus used with the tenses of the verb TO BE it forms what is 
called the First Periphrastic conjugation (see § 129): as, urbs est castira, the 
city is about to fall;, mnanstrus eram, / was going éo stay, 

2. It is also used, more rarely, to express purpose (see § 293. 4): as, 
vénit auditirus, he came to hear (about to hear). 

c. The Perfect participle (ending in -tus, -sus) has two uses: — 

1. It is sometimes equivalent to the English Perfect Passive parti- 
ciple in -ED: as, téctus, sheltered; acceptus, accepted; ictus, having 
been struck; and often has simply an adjective meaning: as, acceptus, 
acceptable. 

2. It is also used to form certain tenses of the passive (§ 110.4): as, 
vocatus est, e was (has been) called. 


NOTE, — There is no Perfect Active or Present Passive participle i in Latin. The 
perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally used in an active sense, as 
sectitus, aving followed. In the case of other verbs some different construction 
is used for these missing participles: as, cum vé6nisset, Zaving come (when he 
had come); equitatti praemisso, having sent forward the cavalry (the cavalry 
having been sent forward); Gum verberatur, while he is (being) struck 

= turtéuevos). 


d. 1. The Gerundive (ending in -ndus) is often used as an adjective 
implying obligation or necessity (ought or must): as, audiendus est, 
he must be heard. 

Note.— When thus used with the tenses of the verb ‘TO BE it forms the Second 
Periphrastic conjugation dé6ligendus erat, ke ought to have been chosen (§ 129). 

2. In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same mean- 
ing as the Gerund (cf. § 114. @), though its construction is different. 
(For examples, see § 295 ff.) 

e. The Participles may all be used as simple adjectives; and the 
present and perfect participles are sometimes compared as adjectives : 
as, amans, amantior, ore fond; diléctus, diléctissimus, dearest. 

jf. The Present and Perfect participles are (like adjectives) often 
used as nouns, especially in the plural (§ 188): as, slither rulers 

(those ruling) ; mortul, ¢he dead. : 


§§ 113-15. ] Gerund and Supine; Tenses. 7 7 


g. As an adjective, the participle is often used predicatively to indi- 
cate some special circumstance or situation: as, moritiirI v6s saliita- 
mus, we at the point of death (about to die) salute you. 


4. Gerund and Supine. 
114. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows :— 


a. The GERUND is, in form, the neuter singular of the Gerundive. 
It is a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English verbal 
noun in -ING (§ 295): as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking. 

NOTE.— In this use the Gerund is found only in the oblique cases. A corre- 
sponding nominative is supplied by the Infinitive: thus, scribere est titile, 
writing (to write) zs useful; but, ars scribendi, she art of writing. 

6. The Supine is in form a noun of the fourth declension (§ 71. a), 
found only in the accusative ending in -tum, -sum and the ablative (or 
dative, probably both) ending in -tii, -si.. These are sometimes called 
the Former and the Latter Supine. The Former is used after verbs and 
the Eatin after adjectives (§§ 302, 303): as, — 


I. vénit spectatum, “e came fo see. 
2. mirabile dictt, wonderful to tell. 


5. Tenses. 
115. The tenses of the verb are of two classes, viz. ani 
1. Of continued action. 


I. PRESENT: scrib6, / am writing. 
2. IMPERFECT: scribébam, I was writing. 
3. FUTURE: scribam, / shall write. 


2. Of completed action. 


. PERFECT: scripsi, / have written, I wrote. 
. PLUPERFECT: scripseram, / had written. 
. FUTURE PERFECT: scripser6, J shall have written. 


An 


a. Tenses of the Indicative. 


a. The tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same meaning 
as the corresponding tenses in English; but are in some cases dis- 
tinguished differently in their use. Thus— 

1. The Future or Future Perfect is often used in subordinate clauses 
where we use the Present: as, — 


si quid habéb6 dabé, z// have (shall have) any thing, J will give. 
cum véner6 scribam, when / come (shall have come), / weil write. 


78 Etymology: Verbs. [§§ 115, 116, 


2. The Present and Imperfect are often used to express continued 
action where the English uses tenses of completed action: as, — 


iam diii aegr6t6, / have long been (and still am) szck. 

iam diii aegrétabam, / had Jong been (and still was) sick. 

NOTE. — Here the Perfect, aegr6tavi, would imply that I am now well; the 
Pluperfect, that I was well at the past time designated. 

bd. The Imperfect is used to describe in past time a continued action 
or a condition of things: as, scribébat, he was writing; ardébat, zt 
was on fire. 

c. The Perfect, having two separate uses, is divided into the Perfect 
Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite). 

1. The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as com- 
pleted in present time, and corresponds to the English (present- or com- 
pound-) perfect: as, scripsi, 7 have written. 

2. The Perfect Historical zarrazes a simple act or state in past time 
without representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds 
to the English past or preterite and the Greek aorist: as, scripsit, he 
wrote; arsit, zt blazed up. 


b. Tenses of the Subjunctive. 


ad. The tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are chiefly used in dependent 
clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (see § 286); but 
have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax, §§ 266 ff., 283, 308). 


lll.—PERSONAL ENDINGS. 
116. Verbs have regular terminations! for each of the 
three Persons, both singular and plural, active and passive. 
These are :— 


Sing. ACTIVE. PASSIVE, 

I. -m (-6 or-i): am-6, / love. I: * amo-r, J am loved. 

2; 6B: ama-s, thou lovest. -risor-re: ama-ris, thou art loved. 
Zaks ama-t, he loves. -tur: ama-tur, he zs loved. 
Plur. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

I. -mus: ama-mus, we/love. -mur: ama-mur, we are loved. 
2. -tis: ama-tis, you Jove. -mini: ama-mini, yeu are loved. 
3. -nt: ama-nt, they Jove. -ntur: ama-ntur, they are loved. 





- 1 These terminations are fragments of old Pronouns, whose signification is thus 
added to that of the verb-stem (compare p. 19, note 1). But the ending -mini in 
the second person plural of the passive is a remnant of the participial form found 
in the Greek -evos, and has supplanted the proper form, which does not appear in 
Latin, It is thought by some scholars that -nt has a similar origin. 


§§ 116-18.] . Forms of the Verb, 79 


NoTE.— The present indicative of the active voice has lost the -m, and ends 
in the modified stem-vowel -6 except in Sum and inquam (§§ 119, 144. 4). This 
6 stands for m blended in sound with a preceding vowel (am6=tama-m), The 
perfect the future perfect, and the future in -b6 have also lost the -m, 


a. The Perfect Indicative active has the special terminations : — 


SING. 2. -sti: amav-i-sti, thou lovedst. 
PLUR. 2. -stis: amav-i-stis, you loved. 
3. -Erunt or -6re: amav-érunt (-6re), they loved. 


4. The Imperative has the following terminations : — 


Sing. ACTIVE, PASSIVE, 

2.——3 ama, love thou. -re: ama-re, Je thou loved. 

2. -té: ama-t6, thou shalt love. -tor: amia-tor, thou shalt be loved. . 
3. -t6: ama-t6, let him love. -tor: ama-tor, let him be loved. 
Plur. 

2. -te: ama-te, love ye. -mini ; ama-mini, de ye loved. 





2.-t6te: ama-tote, yeshall love. 
3--nt6: ama-nto,/etthemlove. -ntor: ama-ntor, let them be loved. 


IV.k—-FORMS OF THE VERB, 


117. Every Latin verb-form (except. the adjective and 
noun forms) is made up of two parts, viz. :— 


1. The STEM (see § 21). This is either the root or a modification 
or development of it. 
2. The ENDING, consisting of — 


a. the signs of mood and tense. 
d. the personal ending (see § 116). 


NOTE 1.— Thus in the verb voc&a-vi-t, he called, the root is voc, modified 
into the verb-stem vca-, which by the addition of the tense sign -ui (-vi) 
becomes the perfect tense VOC&Vv1; and to this is added the personal ending (-t) 
of the third person singular. 

NOTE 2,—These endings are of various origin. In nene of them, however, 
is the tense or mood sign strictly inserted between the root and the personal ter- 
minations. All verb-forms are either inherited from a time when the elements were 
still significant and could still be compounded, or are imitations of such inherited 
forms. 


118. The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs 
for mood and tense combined with personal endings, are 
exhibited in the following table :— 























80 Etymology: Verbs. [§ 118, 
ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Present, 
Sing. 1. -6 | (-m -or -r 
°, r . 5 a “ 
2. 6 ues 8 -risor-re ¥,; | -ris ov-re 
=~) S > 
St <3 SJ +t -tur 38 | -tur 
prem O< 
Plur. 1. -mus ‘3 ;2;5 |-mus -mur ‘Ss [-mur 
2. -tis & £8 | -tis -mini & @ |-minT 
3. -nt “5 (-nt -ntur -ntur 
Imperfect. 
S7ug. 1. -ba-m -re-m -bar -re-r 
2. -ba-s -ré-s -ba-ris(-re)  -r6-ris (-re) 
3. -ba-t -re-t -ba-tur -ré-tur 
Plur. 1. -b&a-mus -ré-mus -ba-mur -ré-mur 
2. -ba-tis -ré-tis -ba-mini -ré-mini 
3. -ba-nt -re-nt -ba-ntur -re-ntur 
INDICATIVE. Future. INDICATIVE. 
1.11.2 Ill. IV. I, Il. Ip Iv.t 
Sing. 1. -b-G «4 (-a-m -bo-r -a-X 
2. -bi-s sage -€-8 -be-ris (-re) Se --ris (-re) 
3 ; ee 
3. bit S255 |-ct bi-tur $5 |-étur 
. went n < - .S) < < 
Plur. 1. -bimus93'34 |-é-mus -bi-mur = ‘Mg | -é-mur 
g ‘ es ees 
2. -bi-tis gor &§ | -étis -bi-mini & @ | -é-mini 
3. -bu-nt *-5 5.3 |-ent bu-ntur [-e-ntur 
INDIC. SUBJ. Perfect. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Sing. 1. -I -eri-m sum sim 
2. -i-sti -eri-s baie sis 
me -tum) 
3. -i+t -eri-t est sit 
Plur. 1. -i-mus -eri-mus i sumus simus 
st oe -ti(-tae, : wes 
2. -i-stis -eri-tis ta) estis sitis 
3. -6ru-ntor-€re -eri-nt sunt sint 
Pluperfect. 
Sing. 1. -era-m -isse-m eram essem 
ir ‘ -tus (-ta, ae ~ 
2. -era-s -1SSE-s tum) eras essés 
3. -era-t -isse-t erat ésset 
Plur. \. -erva-mus -issé-mus " eramus essémus 
sags a -ti(-tae, : ca 
2. -era-tis -issé-tis ta) eratis essétis 
3. -era-nt -isse-nt erant essent 








1 These numerals refer to the four conjugations given later (see § 122), 


§§ 118, 119.] Forms of the Verb. ! 81 


Future Perfect 





Sing. 1. -er-6 erd 
in 2. -eri-s ‘tus (ta, | ovis 
: ‘ -tum) ; 
3. -eri-t erit 
Plur. 1. -eri-mus e erimus 
. hee -ti(-tae, fe 
2. -eri-tis -ta) eritis 
3. -eri-nt erunt 
IMPERATIVE. 
Present. 
Sing. 2. — Flur. 2. -te | Sing.2.-re Plur. 2. -mini 
Future. 
2. -t6 2. -tote 2. -tor 2— — 
3. -td 3. -nto 3. -tor 3. -ntor 


For convenience a table of the Noun and Adjective forms of the 
verb is here added. 








INFINITIVES. 

Pres. -re (Pres. stem) I. 11. 1V.-r1; IU. -2 

Perfe -isse (Perf. stem) -tus (-ta, -tum) esse 

Fut.  -tiirus (-a, -um) esse -tum Iri 
PARTICIPLES. _ 

Pres, -ns, -ntis 

Perf. -tus, -ta, -tum 

Fut. -tiirus, -a, -um Ger. -ndus, -a, -u1a 

GERUND. SUPINE. 
-ndi, -nd6, -ndum, -nd6 -tum, -tii 


Nore. — The 1 of the Perfect, which in early Latin is always /oug except before 
-mus, is of doubtful origin. It is probably in all cases a part of the stem, as it is 
in dedi, steti, where it takes the place of the vowel a, In the suffixes -vi (of un- 
known origin) and -si (akin to those of Greek €de:¢a and Skr. adiksham), and in the 
perfects of consonant-roots, it seems to be, but probably is not, a mere connecting 
vowel, The 8 before -t] and -tis is also anomalous. Most scholars regard it as a 
remnant of es; but it may be, like the personal endings, of pronominal origin, 

The Passive is a middle (or reflexive) form peculiar to Latin and Celtic, and of 
uncertain origin. 


The Verb Sum. 
119. The verb sum, Jz, is both irregular and defective, 
having no gerund or supine, and no participle but the 
future. | : 


Its conjugation is given at the outset, on account of its importance. 
for the inflection of all other verbs. 


82 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


SING. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Etymology: Verbs. [s 119. 


PRINCIPAL PARTS: Pres. sum, Infin. esse, Perf. fuY, 
Fut. Part. futirus. 








INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present, 
1. sum, / am. sim! 
2. &8, thou art (you are). sis 
3. est, he (she, zt) zs. sit 
I. sumus, we are. simus 
2. estis, you are. sitis 
3. sunt, they are. sint 
Imperfect. 
I. eram, / was. essem (forem) 
2. eras, you were. essés (forés) 
3. erat, he (she, it) was. esset (foret) 
I. eramus, we were. essémus 
2. eratis, you were. essétis 
3. erant, they were. essent (forent) 
Future. 
1. er6, J shall be. 
2. eris, you will be. 
3. erit, he will be. 
I. erimus, we shail be. : 
2. eritis, you will be. 
3. erunt, ¢hey will be. 
Perfect. 
1. ful, 7 was (have been). — fuerim 
2. fuisti, you were fueris 
3. fuit, he was. fuerit 
1. fuimus, we were. fuerimus 
2. fuistis, you were. fueritis 
3. fuérunt, fuére, they were. fuerint 
Pluperfect. 
1. fueram, / had been. fuissem 
2. fueras, you had been. fuissés 
3. fuerat, he had been. fuisset 
1. fueramus, we had been. fuissémus 
2. fueratis, you had been. fuissétis 
3. fuerant, they had been. fuissent 








1 All translations of the subjunctive are misleading, and hence none is given, 


see § 112.4 


§§ 119, 120.] The Verb Sum. 83 


Future Perfect. 
Sing. 1. fuer6,[shallhave been. Plur. 1. fuerimus, we shall have been. 


2. fueris, you will have been. 2. fueritis, you will have been. 
3. fuerit, he will have been. 3. fuerint, they will have been. 
IMPERATIVE. 
Present. Sing. 2. 8, be thou. Plur. 2. este, be ye. 
Future. 2. est6, thou shalt be. 2. estdte, ye shall be. 
3. estd, he shall be. 3. sunt, they shall be. 
INFINITIVE. 


Present. esse, Zo de. 
Perfect. fuisse, fo have been. 
Future. fore or futiirus esse, fo be about to be. 


PARTICIPLE. 
Future. futtirus, -a, -um, about fo be. 


a. The present participle, which should be ¢séns (compare Sanskrit 
sant), appears in that form in ab-séns, prae-séns; and as 6ns (com- 
pare wy) in pot-éns. The simple form 6ns is sometimes found in late 
or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun, in the forms 
éns, being; entia, things which are. 

5. RARE Forms.—Indicative: Future, escit, escunt ies an 
inchoative present, see § 167. @). 

Subjunctive: Present, siem, siés, siet, sient; fuam, fuas, fuat, 
fuant; Perfect, fivimus; Pluperfect, fiivisset. 


Nore.— For essem, etc., forem, forés, etc., are often used without difference 
of meaning. 


120. The verb sum appears in numerous compounds, 
which will be treated under Irregular Verbs (§ 137). 


NoTE.— The root of the verb Sum is ES, which in the imperfect is changed to 
ER (see § 11. @.1), and in many cases is shortened to S, Some of its modifications, 
as found in several languages more or less closely related to Latin, may be seen in 
the following table,—the “ Indo-European” being the primitive or theoretic form, 
and the form syam corresponding to the Latin sim (siem) :— 


INDO-EUROPEAN. SANSKRIT. GREEK. LATIN, LITHUANIAN. 
es-mi as-mi syam (opt.) Supt s-um es-mi 
es-si as-i syas éool es es-i 
esti ss as-ti syat eort es-t es-ti 

8-masi $-mas syama eopev s-umus es-me 
8-tasi s-tha syata eoré es-tis es-te 
s-anti s-anti syus evr s-unt es-ti 


The Perfect and Supine stems, fui-, futfiro-, are kindred with the Greek Zu, and 
with the English de. 





1 Old form, 


84 Etymology: Verbs. [§§ 121, 122. 


The Three Stems. 


121. The parts of the Latin verb may be formed upon 
three different stems (partly real and partly supposed), 
called the Present, the Perfect, and the Supine Stem (see 
notes, pp. 86, 119 ff.). 


a. The tenses of continued action, both active and passive, together 
with the Gerund and Gerundive, are formed upon the PRESENT STEM, 
and collectively are called the Present System. 

b. The tenses of completed action in the active voice are formed upon 
the PERFECT STEM, and are called the Perfect System. 

c. The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine are formed 
upon the SUPINE STEM, and are called the Supine System. 


NOTE 1.—Since Latin verbs are commonly spoken of under the form of their 
present tense, the other parts are usually said to be derived from this, It is only in 
the verbs formed later in the language that this is true. Thus armavil, / have 
armed, does come from arm6, / arm; but sivl, J have allowed, does not come 
from sin6, / alow; but both sind and sivi come from a common source, the 
root (see §§ 22, 123, 124), by different processes, 

NOTE 2.— The /nfluence of Analogy. Many Latin verbs were not inherited from 
the parent speech, but formed during the separate existence of the language. The 
forms of these verbs are not strictly compounds of root or stem and ending, but are 
imitations of verbs already existing in Latin. For it is only by analogy that elements 
(parts of words) not complete and significant in themselves can be used to form new 
words in a developed language. When stems are not felt as significant, they can- 
not be used for composition. Thus a form like fug&bat could be made only 
from a complete word fuga, or from some form in which fuga seemed to be 
a complete word; and must be regarded, not as a compound of stem and auxiliary, 
fuga- + bat (like ar&- + bat), but as an imitation of forms like ar&bat, which 
originally were really compounds. Simple Perfects like dedi and compound 
forms like v6xi have both influenced, by analogy, the production of new forms, 
like momordi from mordeé, mansi from maned, 


V.—REGULAR VERBS. 


Latin verbs are classed as Regular or Irregular accord- 
ing as they do or do not follow the inflection of the Four 
Conjugations. 


122. There are in Latin four principal forms of Present 
Stems, ending respectively in 4-, 6-, &-, 1. With this differ- 
-ence of stem most of the other differences of conjugation 
coincide. | 


§ 122. | Regular Verbs. 85 


a. Verbs are accordingly classed in Four Regular Conjugations, dis- 
tinguished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the Present 
Infinitive Active. 

5. The PRINCIPAL Parts of a verb, which determine its conjugation 
throughout, are — 

1. The Present Indicative i showing the present stem and 

2. The Present Infinitive the conjugation. 

3. The Perfect Indicative, showing the Jerfect stem. 

4. The Supine (or the Perfect Participle), showing the supine 
stem. 

c. The regular forms of the conjugations are seen in the following : — 

First: Active, am6, amare, amavi, amatum, Jove. 
Passive, amor, amari, amatus. 
Present- and Verb-stem ama-, Perfect-stem amav-, Supine- 
stem amat-. 
Second: déle6, délére, délévi, délétum, J/of out. 
Passive, déleor, déléri, délétus. 
Present- and Verb-stem délé-, Perfect-stem, délév-, Supine- 
stem délét-. 
Third: teg6, tegére, téxi, téctum, cover. 
Passive, tegor, tegi, téctus. 
Root TEG, Verb-stem tegé-, Perfect-stem téx-, Supine-stem 
téct-. ; 
Fourth: audi6, audire, audivi, auditum, /ear. 
Passive, audior, audiri, auditus. 
Present- and Verb-stem audi-, Perfect-stem, audiv-, Supine- 
stem, audit-. 
In the Second conjugation, however, the characteristic 6- rarely appears 
in the perfect and supine: the type of this conjugation is, therefore — 


Second: mone6d, monére, monui, monitum, warn. 
Passive, moneor, monéri, monitus. 


ad. In many verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two 
or more different conjugations (cf. § 134): as,— 


I. 2, dom6, domare, domui, domitum, subdue. 
2. 3, mane6, manére, mansi, mansum, remain. 
3. 4, pet, petére, petivi, petitum, seek. 

4. 3, Vineid, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, dznd, 


Such verbs are referred to the conjugation to which the first or Present: 
stem conforms. 


86 Etymology: Verbs. 


* 


1. Present Stem. 


NoTE. — The parent speech from which Latin comes possessed verbs 
with present stems of three different kinds. These verbs were formed 
as follows :— 

First: From roots, by adding the personal endings. 

Second: From noun-stems, by adding the personal endings. These 
noun-stems had been formed from roots by the addition of various 
suffixes, as a-, na-, ya-, ta-. 

Third: From roots and stems, by adding a common suffix (probably 
-yami, etc., later -yomi) which already contained the personal endings. 

Verbs of all these forms were inherited by the Latin. Of the first class 
few survive, and these are counted as irregular, except such as have been 
forced into some one of the four conjugations. Examples are: ést, 
from ed6 ; fert, from fer6; das, from dé (dare); flémus, from fled. 

Of the second class a large number remain. In these the verb-stem 
ends in a short vowel, €- (i-). This is a remnant of the original vowel 
&- (6-) of the noun-suffixes. Besides this, the consonant of the suffix 
is often preserved. Verbs of this form are often called primitive verbs, 
because the language lost the power of making new forms of this type 
except in a few cases. They make up the third conjugation. Ex- 
amples are: ferd (stem feroe-) for bher-o-mi (cf. fert in the first 
class) ; sternimus (stem sternoe-) for star-no-mas; plectunt (stem 
plectoe-) for-plec-to-nti; pell6 (stem pelloe-) for pel-yo-mi. So 
disc6 (stem discoe-) for di(c)sco-mi. This last form became the 
type for a large number of verbs called zuceptive (see § 167. a). 

Of the third class, those verbs in which any vowel (except u) came 
in contact with the suffix (-yami) suffered contraction so as to present 
a long vowel, 4-, 6-, I-, at the end of the stem. These became the 
types of the first, second, and fourth conjugations respectively. In 
imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the 
Romans themselves (after the mode of formation had been entirely 
forgotten) from noun and adjective stems. This came to be the 
regular way of forming new verbs, just as in English the borrowed 
suffix -2ze can be added to adjectives to make a verb; as, modernize. 

Those verbs of the third class in which a consonant or u came in 
contact with the suffix -yami suffered various phonetic changes. Such 
verbs fell partly into the third conjugation, giving rise to an irregular 
form of it, and partly into the fourth, and some have forms of both. 

Examples are: (c6n)spicié, -spicere, forspek-yomi; veni6, venire, 
for (g)ven-yomi ; cupi6, cupere, but cupivi; orior, oritur, but oriri. 
But plué, pluere, for plu-yomi; and hence, by analogy, acué, acuere. 


-§ 123,] Present Stem. 87 


But in “ll these cases many cross-analogies and errors as well as 
phonetic changes have been at work to produce irregularities. Hence 
has arisen the traditional system which may be practically represented 
as follows : — 


123. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in all 
regular verbs in one of the following ways :1— 


a. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a Jong 
vowel (A-, 6-,1-) to the root, whose vowel is sometimes changed: as, 
voca-re (VOC), moné-re (MEN, cf. memini), sopi-re (SOP). 

NOTE. — These verb-stems are almost all really formed from noun-stems on 
the pattern of older formations (see note, p. 86). 

6. In the Third conjugation, by adding a short vowel (€-, i-) to the 
root: as, tegé-re (TEG), ali-tis (AL). This vowel may be preceded — 

1. By n, t, se, or the terminal consonant of the root repeated (a 
phonetic representative of original i): as, temne-re (TEM), plect-6 
(PLEC), crésce-re (CRE), pell-6 (for pel-id, PEL), mitt-6 (MIT). 

2. By i, which in most forms disappears in inflection (see § 126. c): 
as, fug-i-6, fug-€-re (FUG). 

c. The root may also be changed — 

1. By lengthening the vowel: as, dic-e-re (auth. caed-e-re (CAD?). 

2. By the repetition of a part of it (reduplication): as, gi-gn-e-re 
(GEN). 

3. By inserting a nasal (m orn): as, find-e-re (FID); tang-e-re 
(TAG). 

d. In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-stem 
irregularly treated as a root: as, statu-e-re (statu-s), aestu-a-re 
(aestu-s); cf. acud, acuere. 

é. A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem: as, 
fer-re, fer-t; es-se; vel-le, vul-t. These are counted as irregular. 





1 These formations may be traced in the following parallel inflections : — 
SANSKRIT» SANSKRIT. SANSKRIT, 


1.vach-aya-mi voc-(a)-6 2.vah-a-mi vehd 3. pag-ya-mi aspic-t3 
vach-aya-si voc-a-s vah-a-si _veh-i-s pag-ya-si  -sfic-i-s 
vach-aya-ti voc-a-t vah-a-ti veh-i-t pag-ya-ti = -spic-i-t 
vach-aya-mas voc-a-mus Vah-&-Mas veh-i-mus pag-ya-Mas -spic-i-mus 
vach-aya-tha voc-a-tis vah-a-tha veh-i-tis pag-ya-tha -sfic-i-tis — 
vach-aya-nti voc-a-nt vah-a-nti veh-u-nt pag-ya-nti -spic-i-unt 


In some cases there appears to be a connecting vowel not explained above; 
but this comes from the irregular use of a verb-stem in place of a root, as in 
oritfirus (cf. ortus), monitus (cf,méns, mentis). 


88 Etymology: Verbs. [§§ 123-125. 


f. A few have roots ending in a vowel. These generally use as 
present stem the root without additions, but sometimes modified: as, 
da-mus (DA), flé-mus (stem fl6-, root form unknown), sisti-mus 
(sta). But others, as rui-mus (RU), are formed with an additional 
vowel according to the analogy of d@. 


2. Perfect Stem. 
124. The Perfect Stem is formed as follows :— 


a. The suffix v (u) (see p. 120, ¢) is added to the verb-stem: as, 
voca-v-i, audi-v-i; or to the root: as, son-u-i (sona-re, root SON), 
mon-u-i (moné-re, MON treated as a root). 

NOTE. -—In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened (see 
§ 9. d): as, stra-v-i (stern6, sTAR), Spré-v-i (sperno, SPAR). 

b. The suffix s is added to the root: as, carp-s-I (CARP), text 
(for teg-s-I, TEG). 

NoTE. — The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect : 
as, finx-i (FIG, present stem fingé-), sanx-i (SAC, present stem Sanci-). 

c. The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant — gener- 
ally with 6, sometimes with the root-vowel: as, ce-cid-I (cad6, CAD), 
to-tond-i (tondesd, TOND). 

NoTE. — In fid-i (for ¢fe-fid-i, find-6), scid-i (for tsci-scid-i, scindG), the 
reduplication has been lost, leaving merely the root. _ 

d. The root-vowel is lengthened: as, €g-I (ag-6), fiig-T (ftig-i-d). 

é. The root itself is used as the perfect stem: as, vert-I (vert-6, 
VERT), solv-I (solv-6, SOLV used as root). 

jf. Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem: 
as, peti-v-i (as if from tpeti-6, tpeti-re, PET). 


3. Supine Stem. 


125. The Supine Stem! is formed by adding t- (or 
phonetically s-) :— 

a. To the verb-stem: as, am4-t-um, délé-t-um, audi-t-um. 

6. To the root, with or without Ii: as, cap-t-um (capi6, CAP), 
moni-t-um (mone6G, MON used as root), cas-um (for cad-t-um, CAD). 

NOTE 1.—The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the 
supine: as, tinc-t-um (ting6, Tic), tén-s-um (ten-d-6, TEN). 


NOTE 2.— The supine is sometimes from a lost or imaginary verb-stem: as, 
peti-t-um (as if from ¢peti-6, +peti-re, PET). 





1 For the modifications of the Supine Stem, see p. 121, 3. 


§ 126.] Supine Stem. | 89 


126. The forms of the several conjugations from which, 
by adding the verb endings in § 118, all the moods and 
tenses can be made are as follows :— 


a. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add 4- to 
the root to form the present stem:?! as, ama-re; with a few whose 
root ends in a (d6, dare; for, fari; 16, flare; n6, nare; sto, 
stare). 

1. The stem-vowel 4- is lost before -6 (as, am6 = fam4-6), and in 
the present subjunctive is changed to 6: as, amé-s, amé-mus. 

2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, to the 
present stem: as, ama-v-I, ama-t-um. For exceptions, see § 
130. 

6. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add €- to the 
root to form the present stem, as moné-re; with a few whose root 
ends in & (fle-6, flé-re; ne6, n&é-re; re-or, ré-rI). 

1. In the present subjunctive 4 is added to the verb-stem: as, 
mone-a-s, mone-d-mus (cf. § 118). 

2. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v (u), and the 
supine stem by adding t to the present stem: as, delé-v-i, delé-t-um. 
But most form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the 
supine stem by adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, having 
{ for : as, mon-u-i, moni-t-um. For lists, see § 131. 

¢. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see § 
137) which add &- to the root to form the present stem: as, 
tegé-re, cap&-re; with a few whose root ends in 8: as, se-ré-re for 
{se-se-re (reduplicated from SE, cf. situm). 

1. The stem-vowel &- is lost before -6, becomes u? before -nt, and 1 
before the other endings of the indicative and imperative: as, teg-6, 
teg-it, tegu-nt; in the imperfect indicative it becomes 6: as, tegé- 
bam; in the future, 6: as, tegés ; in the present subjunctive 4: as, tega-s. 

Verbs in -i6 retain the i before a, 6, u, and 6: as, capi-at, capi-unt, 
capi-Gbat, capi-és, capi-et®; but lose it elsewhere: as, cap-it (not 
tcapi-it), cap-eret. 

2. All forms of perfect and supine stems are found in this conjuga- 
tion. See lists, § 132. But the perfect is never formed from the 
present stem, but always from the root (§ I2I. n. 1). 


. 





1 The present stem is thus the verb-stem. For exceptions, see § 130. 
2 The gerundive varies between -endus and -undus (§ 12. @). 
3 The @ in capiet, once long, was afterwards shortened. 


90 Etymology: Verbs. [§§ 126, 127. 


d. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add Tf to the 
root to form the présent stem: as, audi-re.1_ In these the perfect and 
supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem: as, audi-v-i, 
audi-t-um.? The endings of the third conjugation are added in the 
third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in the 
imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive: as, 
audi-unt, audi-ébat, audi-étis, audi-at. 

é. The Pres. Imperative Act. (second pers. sing.) is the same as the 
present stem: as, ama, moné, tegé, audi. But verbs in -i6 of the 
third conjugation omit i: as, capé (not tcapie). 

f. The tenses of completed action are all regularly formed by adding 
the tense-endings (given in § 118) to the perfect stem: as, amav-i, 
amav-eram, amav-er6, amav-erim, amav-issem, amav-isse. | 

g. The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed by 
adding to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of continued 
action of the verb esse: as, perf. amatus sum; plup. amatus eram, etc. 


4. Synopsis of the Verb. 


127. The following synopsis shows the forms of the 
verbs arranged according to the several stems. Amé, a 
regular verb of the first conjugation, is taken as a type. 


PRESENT STEM, ama-; PERFECT STEM,-amav-; SUPINE STEM, amat-. 
































d PRES. IMPERF. FUT. | _ PERF, PLUPERF. ‘FUT... PERF. 
IND. am6 ama-bamama-b6 | amav-i amav-eram amav-er6 
gi | SUB. ame-m ama-rem amav-erim amav-issem 
= J Imp. 2. ama ama-t6 
< INF. améa-re ‘ amat-airus i amav-isse 
: MEL ce Be ee en SLA dn ae Me ee ee 
| PART. ama-ns iamat-irus: 
! 
‘IND. amo-r ama-bar am4&-bor amat-us sum — eram —erd 
s SUB. ame-r améa-rer i amat-us sim —essem 
= ) IMP. 2.ama-re ama-tor | 
Mp ES SIR 
< INF. ama-ri lama-tum irl amat-us esse 
PART. Ger. ama-ndus ! amat-us 








1A few are formed from noun-stems, as fini-re (from fini-s), and a few roots end 
in 1; but these are not distinguishable in form. 
2 For exceptions, see § 133. 


§ 128.] Special Forms. | QI . 


128. The following special forms require notice :— 


a. In tenses formed upon the perfect stem, v between two vowels is 
often lost and contraction takes place. Thus, — 
1. Perfects in -Avi, -€vi, -6vi, often contract the two vowels into A, 
6 respectively: as, amasse for amavisse ; amarim for amAverim ; 
amassem for amavissem; c6nsuérat for cOnsuéverat; fléstis for 
flévistis; ndsse for ndvisse. So in perfects in -vi, where the v is 
a part of the present stem: as, commG6rat for commé6verat. 


NOTE. — The first person of the perfect indicative (as am&vi) is never con- 
tracted, the third very rarely. 


2. Perfects in -Ivi regularly omit v, but rarely contract the vowels 
except before st and ss, and very rarely in the third person perfect: 
as, audieram for audiveram; audisse for audivisse; audisti for 
audivisti; abiit for abivit. The forms siris, sirit, siritis, sirint, 
for siveris, etc. (from siver6 or siverim), are archaic. 

é. In many forms from the perfect stem, is, iss, sis are lost in like 
manner when s would be repeated if they were retained: as, dixti for 
dixisti (x= cs); traxe for traxisse ; 6vasti for 6vasisti; vixet for 
vixisset; 6répsémus for érépsissémus. These forms belong to 
archaic and colloquial usage. 

c. Four verbs — dic6, diic6, faci6, fers — with their compounds, 
drop the vowel-termination of the imperative, making dic, diic, fac, 
fér ; but compounds in -ficid retain it, as c6nfice. The forms dice, 
diice, face (never fere), occur in early Latin. 

d. For the imperative of scid, the future form scit6é is always used 
in the singular, and scit6te usually in the plural. 

é. The following ancient forms are chiefly found in poetry : — 

1. In the fourth conjugation -Ibam, -Ib6 for -iébam, -iam (future). 
These forms are regular in e6, go (§ 141). 

2. In the present subjunctive -im: as in duim, perduim (for dem, 
tperdem), retained in religious formulas. This form is regular in 
sum and vol6 and their compounds (§§ 119, 138), 

3. In the perfect subjunctive and future perfect -sim, -s6: as, 
faxim, fax6, itiss6, recéps6, (= fécer6, etc.); ausim (= ausus 
sim). 

4. In the passive infinitive -ier: as, vocarier for vocari; agier for 
agi. 

5. A form in -Ass6, -assere is found used as a future perfect: as, 
amassis, from am6; levass6, from levG; impetrassere, from im- 
petr6é ; iiidicassit, from iiidicsé. 


92 Etymology: Verbs. 


FIRST CONJUGATION.—ACTIVE VOICE. 


PRINCIPAL ParTs: Pres. am6, Infin. amare, Perf. amAvi, 
Supine amatum. 





INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present. ‘ 
amo, / love. amem 
amas, thou lovest (you love). . amés 
amat, he (she, it) loves. * amet 
amamus, we love. amémus 
amatis, you love. amétis 
amant, they love. ament 
Imperfect. 
amabam, / loved. i amarem 
amabas, you loved. . amarés 
amabat, “e loved. | amaret 
amabamus, we loved. amarémus 
amabatis, you loved. amarétis 
amabant, they loved. amarent 
Future. 
amab6, / shall love. 
amabis, you will love. 
amabit, he will love. 
amabimus, we shall love. 
amabitis, you will love. 
amabunt, they will love. 


Perfect. 





amavi, J loved. amaverim 
amavisti, you loved. amaveris 
amavit, he loved. amaverit 
amavimus, we loved. amaverimus 
amavistis, ybu loved. amaveritis 
amavérunt (-ére), they loved. amaverint 
Pluperfect. tp 
amaveram, / kad loved. amavissem 
amaveras, you had loved. amavissés 
amaverat, he had loved. amavisset 
amaveramus, we had loved. amavissémus 
amaveratis, you had loved. amavissétis 





amaverant, they had loved. amavissent 


§ 129.] First Conjugation. 93 


Future Perfect. 





SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
amaver6, / shall have loved. amaverimus, we shall have loved. 
amaveris, you will have loved. amaveritis, you will have loved. 
amaverit, he will have loved. amaverint, they will have loved. 
IMPERATIVE. 
’ Pres. 2. ama, love thou. amate, love ye. 
Fut. 2. amat6, thou shalt love. amatote, ye shall love. 
3. amatd, he shall love. amant6, they shall love. 
INFINITIVE. 


Present. amare, fo love. 
Perfect. amavisse or amasse, fo have loved. 
Future. amatirus esse, fo be about to love. 


PARTICIPLES. 
Present. amans, -antis, Joving. 
Future. amatirus, -a, -um, avout fo love.’ 


GERUND. 
GEN. amandi, of loving. Acc. amandum, /oving. 
Dat. amando, for loving. ABL. amando6, dy loving. 


SUPINE. 
Former. amatum Latter. amati, fo love. 

129. The so-called Periphrastic conjugations are formed 
by combining the tenses of esse with the Future Active 
Participle and with the Gerundive: as, — . 

| First Periphrastic Conjugation. 





INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. amatirus sum, / am about to love. sim 
Imperf. amatirus eram, / was about to love. —— essem 
Fut. amatirus er6, /shallbe about to love. z 
Perf. amatirus ful, 7 was about, etc. —— fuerim: 
Pluperf. améatirus fueram, / had been about, etc. ,—— fuissem* 


Fut. Perf. amatirus fuer6, /shallhave been about, etc. 
INFINITIVE: Pres. amatirus esse /erf. amatirus fuisse 


Second Periphrastic Conjugation. 


Pres. amandus sum, / am fo be loved. —- sim 
Imperf. amandus eram, / was to be loved. —— essem 
Fut. amandus er6, / shall be [ worthy ] to be loved. 

Perf. amandus ful, / was to be loved... —— fuerim 
Pluperf. amandus fueram, / had deen, etc. —— fuissem 


Fut. Perf. amandus fuer, / shall have been, etc. 
INFINITIVE: Pres. amandus esse Perf. amandus fuisse 


04 Etymology: Verbs. 


FIRST CONJUGATION.—PASSIVE VOICE. 


PRINCIPAL PARTS: Pres. amor, Infin. amari, Perf. amatus sum. 








INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

amor, / am loved. amer 

amaris (-re), you are loved. am6ris (-re) 

amatur, he zs loved. amétur 

amamur, we are loved. amémur 

amaminti, you are loved. amémini 

- amantur, they are loved. amentur 
Imperfect. 

amabar, / was loved. amarer 

amabaris (-re), you were loved. amar6ris (-re) 

amabatur, ke was loved. : amarétur 

amabamur, we were loved. amarémur 

amabamini, you were loved. amarémini 

amabantur, they were loved. amarentur 
Future. 


amabor, / shall be loved. 
amaberis (-re), you will be loved. 
amabitur, Ze will be loved. 
amabimur, we shall be loved. 
amabimini, you will be loved. 
amabuntur, they will be loved. 





Perfect. . 
amatus sum, / was loved. amatus sim 
amatus es, you were loved. amatus sis 
amatus est, Ze was loved. amatus sit 
amati sumus, we were loved. af amati simus 
amati estis, you were loved. amati sitis 
amati sunt, they were loved. amati sint 

Pluperfect, 
amatus eram, / had been loved. amatus essem 
amatus eras, you had been loved. amatus essés 
amatus erat, he had been loved. amatus esset 
amati erdmus, we had been loved. amati essémus 
amati eratis, you had been loved. amati essétis 





amati erant, they had been loved. amati essent 


r 


§ 130.| First Conjugation. 95 


Future Perfect. 
* SINGULAR. PLURAL, 


amatus er6, / shall have been loved. | amati erimus, we shall have, etc. 
amatus eris, you will have, etc. amati eritis, you wall have, etc. 
amatus erit, Ze will have, etc. amati erunt, they will have, etc. 


IMPERATIVE. 
Pres. 2. amare, be thou loved. amamini, de ye loved. 
Fut. 2. amator, thou shalt be loved. 
3. amator, he shall be loved. | amantor, they shall be loved. 





INFINITIVE. 
Present. amari, fo be loved. 
Perfect. amatus esse, fo have been loved. 
Future. amatum irl (amatus fore), to de about to be loved. 


PARTICIPLES. 
Perfect. amatus, loved (beloved, or having been loved). 
Future (Gerundive). amandus, -a, -um, Z0-be-loved (lovely). 


130. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation, most 
of them formed directly on a noun- or adjective-stem: as, arm6, arm 
(arma, arms); caec6, to blind (caecus, blind); exsul6, be an exile 
(exsul, au exile) (§ 166.a@). Their conjugation is usually regular, 
like am6; though of many only a few forms are found in use. 

The following verbs form their Perfect and Supine stems irregularly. 
Those marked * have also regular forms. 


erep6, crepui, crepit-, zesound. |necd, *necul, *nect-, £72. 
cubé, cubui, cubit-, Ze down. _\/plicé, *-plicul, *-plicit-, fold. 
G6, dare, dedi, dat-, give (DA). p6t6, potavi, *pot-, drink. 
. domd, domui, domit-, subdue. | sec6, secul, sect-,! cui. 
fric6, fricui, *frict-, rz. -(|son6, sonul, sonit-,! sound. 
iuvé (ad-iuv5), itivi, itit-,) Zc/p. || stG, steti, stat- (-stit-), stand. 
lab6, -avi (no sup.), Zotter. ton6, tonul, tonit-, thunder. 
mic6, micui (no sup.), glitter. || vet6, vetul, vetit-, fordid. 





NOTE. — Compounds of these verbs have the following forms: — 

crep6: dis-crepui or -crepavi. 

G5: circum-, inter, pessum-, satis-, super-,vénum-do, -dedi, -dat-, of the Ist conju- 
gation; other compounds are of the 3d, as condd, condére, condidi, conditum, 

micd5: di-micaivi, -micat-; é-micui, -micat-, 

Plic: re-, sub- (sup-), multi-plicd, -plicavi, plicat-; ex-plicd (unfold), -ut, -2t-; 
(explain), -avi, -a¢-; im-plicd, -avi (-ui), -catum (-itum). 

St5: cin-sti, -stiti, -stit- (-stat-); ad-, re-std-, -stiti, —; ante- (anti-), inter-, supers 
sto, -steli, —; circum-sti, -steti (-stitt), —; di-std, no perfect or supine. 





1 Future Participle in -Gturus. 


96 


Etymology: Verbs. 


SECOND CONJUGATION. 


PRINCIPAL Parts: Active, moned, monére, monui, monitum ; 
fassive, moneor, monéri, monitus sum. 





PASSIVE. 


ACTIVE. 
INDIC. SuBJ. INDIC. ~ SuBJ. 
Present, 
monesd, /warz, moneam moneor monear 
monés, you warn. moneas moné6ris (-re) monearis (-re) 
monet, se warns. moneat monétur moneatur 
monémus moneamus monémur moneamur 
monétis moneatis monémini moneamini 
monent moneant monentur moneantur 
Imperfect. 
monébam monérem monébar monérer 
monébas monérés monébAaris (-re) monéréris (-re) 
monébat monéret monébatur monérétur 
monébamus monérémus monébamur monérémur 
monébatis monérétis monébamini monérémini 
monébant monérent monébantur monérentur 
Future. 
monéb6 monébor 
monébis monéberis (-re) 
monébit monébitur 
monébimus monébimur 
monébitis monébiminif 
monébunt monébuntur 
Perfect. 
monul monuerim monitus sum monitus sim 
monuisti monueris monitus es monitus sis 
monuit monuerit monitus est monitus sit 
monuimus monuerimus moniti sumus moniti simus 
monuistis monueritis moniti estis moniti sitis 
monuérunt (-re) monuerint moniti sunt moniti sint 
Pluperfect. 
monueram monuissem monitus eram monitus essem 
monueras monuissés monitus eras monitus essés 
monuerat monuisset monitus erat monitus esset 
monueramus monuissémus | monitieramus moniti essémus 
monueratis monuissétis moniti eratis moniti essétis 
monuerant monuissent moniti essent 


moniti erant 


§ 131.] Second Conjugation. Q7 


Future Perfect. 








monuer6 monitus er6 
monueris monitus eris 
monuerit monitus erit 
monuerimus moniti erimus 
monueritis moniti eritis 
monuerint : moniti erunt 
IMPERATIVE. 6 
SING, PLUR. SING. PLUR. 
Pres. 2. moné monéte monére monémini 
Fut. 2. monét6 monétote monétor 
3. monéto monent6 monétor monentor 
INFINITIVE. 

Pres. monére monéri 

Perf. monuisse monitus esse 

Fut. monitiirus esse monitum iri (monitus fore) 

PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. monéns Perf. monitus 
Fut. monitirus - Ger. monendus 
GERUND. SUPINE. 
monendi, -d6, -dum, -d6 monitum, monitéi 


131. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation, most 
of them denominative verbs of condition, having a corresponding noun 
and adjective from the same root, and an inceptive in -se6 (§ 167. a): 
as, cale6, be warm; calor, warmth; calidus, warm; calésc6, grow 
warm; timed, fear; timor, fear; timidus, timid. 

Most of the verbs of the second conjugation form their perfect and 
supine like moned. The following have -évi and -6tum: déle6, de- 
stroy; fle, weep; ned, spins; vie6, Plat; and compounds of -pled, 
fill; -oleS, grow. The remainder are: — 





alged, alsi, de cold. faved, favi, faut-, favor. 
arde6, arsi, ars-, burn. ferved, fervi (ferbul), c/ow. 
auded, ausus sum, dare. foves, fovi, f6t-, cherish. 
augeo, auxi, auct-, zzcrease. frige6, frixt, de cold. 

- cave6, cavi, caut-, care. fulged, filsi, shzne. 
cénse6, cénsul, céns-, value. |gaude6, gavisus sum, rejoice. 
cied, civi, cit-, excite. | haere6, haesi, haes-, cling. 
doceé, docul, doct-, feach. Jindulgeé, indilsi, indilt-, zxdulge 


98 


iubed, iiissf, ifiss-, order. 
langued, langul, de faint. 
lique6, liqui (-licul), melt. 
liice6, lixi, -luct-, shine. 
liges, lixi, lict-, mourn. 
mane6, mansi, mans-, waz?. 

ymisceo, -cui, mixt- (mist-), zx, 
morde6, momordi, mors-, dzze. > 

_AMOveS, mGbvi, mbt-, wove. 
mulced, mulsi, muls-, svothe. 
mulge6, -si (-xI), miils- (-miilct-), 

milk. 

nived, -nivi (-nixi), w7zk. 

- paved, pavi, fear. 

‘pended, pependi, péns., ang. 
prande6d, prandi, prans-, dive. © 
ride6, risi, ris-, /augh. 


Etymology: Verbs. 





[§ 131. 


| sedeG, sédf, séss-, s7z. 
‘| soled, solitus sum, Je wont. 


sorbe6, sorbui (sorpsi), sorpt-, 
suck. 

sponded, spopondi, spG6ns-, 
pledge. 

strided, stridi, whzz. 

suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge. 

tene6 (-tineS), tenui, tent-, Zo/d. 

terge6, térsi, térs-, wzfe. 

tonded, totondi, téns-, sear. 

torques6, torsi, tort-, fwest. 

torred, torrul, tost-, roast. 

turges6, tiirsi, swell. 


| urged, tirsi, urge. 


vides, vidi, vis-, sze. 
vovesd, vOvi, vot-, vow. 


NOTE. — The following have a perfect in -ui, but have no supine. A few (as 
maereo, Je sad) have neither perfect nor supine. 


arce6, wardoff. eges, need. 
called, de skilful. flore6, bloom. 
cared, lack. horre6, shudder. 


pated, Me ofen.studed, atlend to. 
siled, de sé/ent.’ timed, fear. 


caned, be white. 


THIRD CONJUGATION, 


PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, teg6, tegére, téxi, téctum; 
Passive, tegor, tegi, téctus sum. 








ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Present. 
25, J cover. tegam tegor tegar 
tegis, you cover. tegas tegeris (-re) tegaris (-re) 
tegit, he covers.  tegat tegitur tegatur 
tegimus tegamus tegimur - tegamur 
tegitis tegatis tegiminT tegamini 
tegunt tegant teguntur tegantur 
Imperfect. 

tegébam tegerem tegé6bar tegerer 
tegébas tegerés tegébaris (-re) tegeréris (-re) 
tegébat tegeret tegébatur tegerétur 
tegébamus tegerémus tegébamur tegerémur 
tegébatis tegerétis tegébaminf tegerémini 
tegébant tegerent tegébantur tegerentur 


~ Third Conjugation. 99 








ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Future. 
tegam tegar 
tegés tegéris (-re) 
teget tegétur 
tegémus tegémur 
tegétis tegémini 
tegent tegentur 
Perfect. 
téxi téxerim téctus sum téctus sim 
téxisti téxeris téctus es téctus sis 
téxit . téxerit téctus est téctus sit 
téximus téxerimus técti sumus técti simus 
téxistis téxeritis técti estis técti sitis 
téxérunt (-re) téxerint téctisunt _ técti sint 
. Pluperfect. 
téxeram téxissem téctus eram téctus essem 
téxeras téxissés téctus eras téctus essés 
téxerat téxisset téctus erat téctus esset 
téxeramus téxissémus técti eradmus técti ess6émus 
téxeratis téxissétis técti eratis técti essétis 
téxerant téxissent técti erant técti essent 
Future Perfect. 
téxer6 téctus er6d 
téxeris téctus eris 
téxerit téctus erit 
téxerimus téeti erimus 
téxeritis técti eritis 
téxerint técti erunt 
IMPERATIVE. 

SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR, 
Prés, 2, tege, cover. tegite tegere tegimini 
Fut. 2. tegito tegitote tegitor -_—— 

Sr 3. tegitd tegunt6 tegitor teguntor 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. tegere tegi 

Perf. téxisse téctus esse 

Fut. téctiirus esse téctum iri (téctus fore) . 
PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. tegéns Perf. téctus 

Fut. téctirus Ger. tegendus (-undus) 





GERUND: tegendi, -d6, -dum, -dé SUPINE: téctum, téctii 


RTS RN eS ee | | os ale 





100 Etymology: Verbs. 


Verbs in -70. 


Verbs of the third conjugation in -i6 have certain forms of the present 
stem like the fourth conjugation. They retain the i of the stem before 
a, 6, u, and 6, but lose it elsewhere except in the future and in the 
participle and gerund. Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows :~ 


__/PRINCIPAL PARTS: capié, capére, cépi, captum; 


! N capior, capi, captus sum, 











XK ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
ry. INDIC. SuBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Present. 
capis, / take. capiam capior capiar 
capis, you take.  capias caperis (-re) capiaris (-re) 
capit, de takes. _capiat capitur capiatur 
capimus capiamus capimur capiamur 
capitis capiatis capimini capiamini 
capiunt capiant capiuntur capiantur 
Imperfect. 
capiébam caperem | capiébar caperer 
Future. 
capiam capiar 
capiés capiéris (-re) 
capiet, etc. capiétur, etc. 
Perfect. 
cépi céperim | captus sum captus sim 
Pluperfect. 
céperam cépissem | captus eram captus essem 
Future Perfect. 
céper6 | captus er6 
IMPERATIVE. 
SING, PLUR. SING, PLUR. 
Pres. 2. cape capite capere capimini 
Fut. 2. capito capitote capitor 
3. capit6 capiunto capitor capiuntor 
INFINITIVE. 
Pres. capere capi 
Perf. cépisse captus esse 
Fut. captiirus esse captum iri 
PARTICIPLES. 


Pres. capiéns 
Fut. captirus 


Perf. captus 
Ger. capiendus 


GERUND: capiendi, -d6, -dum, -d6 SUPINE: captum, -ti 





«== mitt6, misi, miss-, send. 


§ 132.] Third Conjugation. 10I 


NOTE. — Verbs of the third conjugation ending in -i6 are the following: capi6, 
cupi6, facid, fodio, fugio, iaciO, pari6, quatid, rapid, sapid, with 
compounds of -cutio, -lici6, -spiciO. For their Principal Parts, see the lists 


—~claud6, clausi, claus-, shut. 


_-=<Givid6, divisi, divis-, divide. 


in § 132. 


) 22 
, A ; 


132. The following lists HERE most oan verbs of the 
third conjugation, classed according to, the, formatiqn, fale the perfect 


stem. > 7» ”) 


3 


pris x eas 


oSaete Set 


~ a. Forming the pesiect stem in s(x) (§ 124. 6 and note): — 


ang6, anxi, anct-, choke. 
carp6, carpsi, carpt-, pluck. 
—<e6d6, céssi, céss-, yzeld. = 
cing6, cinxi, cinct-, dnd. 
clang6, clanxi, sound. i 
clep6, clepsi, clept-, stea/. 
com6, cOmpsi, c6mpt., comb, deck. 
coqué, coxi, coct-, covk. ad 
-cuti6, -cussi, -cuss-, shake. 
—dém6, démpsi, démpt., fake away. 
dic6, dixi, dict-, say. 


_ dics, dixi, dtict-, guide. 
fig6, fixi, fix-, fix. 
fing6 [FIG], finxi, fict-, fashion. 
flect6, fléxi, flex-, bend. 
-flud, flixi, flix-, fow. 
frendo, -frési, fress-, gvash. 
frig6, frixi, frict- (frix-), fry. — 
— gerd, gessi, gest-, carry. ee 
laed6, laesi, laes-, hurt. 
-licid, -lexi, -lect-, entice (€licul, 
-licit-). 
ling6, linxi, linct-, ck. 
-liido, lisi, lis-, A/ay. 
_-merg6, mérsi, mérs-, Alunge. — 


— 


-— 


nect6 [NEC], nexi (nexui), nex., 
fc weave. 
~~ ntib6, nipsi, niipt-, marry. 


a“) 


—, 





pecté, pexi (pexul), pex-, com> 


pérgo, perréxi, perréct-, go on. 
pings [PIG], pinxi, pict-, pazut. 
plaud6, plausi, plaus-, applaud. 
plect6, pléxi (-xui), plex-, braid. 
prem6, pressi, press-, Jress. 
pr6m6, -mpsi, -mpt-, dring out. 
quatiG, (-cussi), quass-, shake. 
rad6, rasi, ras-, scrape. 

rego, réxi, réct-, rule. 

rép6, répsi, répt-, creep. 

r6d6, rosi, r6s-, gvaw. 

sarpo, sarpsi, sarpt-, rune. 
scalp6, scalpsi, scalpt-, scrape. 
scribo, scripsi, script-, write. 
serp6, serpsi, serpt-, craw. 
sparg6, sparsi, spars-, scatter. 
-spicié, -spexi, -spect-, vzew. 
-stingus, -stinxl, -stinct-, guench. 
string6, strinxi, strict-, dind. 
strud, strixi, striict-, duzd. 
saim6, simpsi, simpt-, ézke. 
sirg6, surréxi, surréct., vzse. 
teg6, téxi, téct-, shelter. 
temn6, tempsi, -tempt-, desPise. 
terg6, térsi, térs-, wife. 

ting6, tinxt!, tinct-, stain. 
trah6, traxi, tract-, drag. 
trids, triisi, triis-, thrust. 

iir6, tissi, fist-, darn. 

vad6, -vasi, -vas-, go. 

veh6, véxi, vect-, draw. 

viv6, vixi, vict-, Zve. 


an 


102 


Etymology: Verbs. 


[§ 132. 


6. Reduplicated in the perfect ($ 124. c):— 


cad6, cecidi, cas-, fad/. 

~ caed6, cecidi, caes-, cuz. 

cano, cecini, cant-, sz. S84 

curré, cucurri, cats:, rum... 3 

disco [Dic]. Gidici, igsecibesne)s 
learn. ait 

-d6, -didi, -dit- (as in ab-dG, etc, “ 
with crédé, véndS), put [DHA]. 

fall6, fefelli, fals-, decezve. 

pang6 [ PAG], pégi (pepigi), pact-, 
fasten, fix, bargain. 

parcso, parsi, peperci, 
(pars-), spare. 


Whe? . 
Pip e< 


parcit- 


pari6, peperi, part- (paritirus), 
bring forth. 

pells, pepuli, puls-, drive. 

pends, pependi, péns-, weigh. 

poses, poposci, (poscitirus), 

) odemand. 

pungs [puG], pupugi, pinct-, 
prick. 

sisto [STA], stiti, stat-, stop. 

tangd [TAG], tetigi, tact-, ouch. 

tend6 [TEN], tetendi (-tendi), 
téns- (cent-), stretch. [ deat. 

tund6 [ TUD], tutudi, tiins- (-tiis-), 





c. Adding u (wv) to the verb-root (§ 124. @):— 


al6, alul, alt- (alit-), nourish. 

cern6, -crévi, -crét-, decree. 

- cold, colui, cult-, dwell, till. 
compésc6, compéscul, restrain. 
consul6, -lui, c6nsult-, consult. 
crésco6, crévi, crét-, zzcrease. 
-cumb6 [cus], cubul, cubit-, Ze 

down. 
deps6, depsui, depst-, fuead. _- 
excell6, -cellui, -cels-, ewe]. _| 
frem6, fremui, fremit-, roar. = 
fur6, furul, rage. 
gem6o, gemuli, gemit-, groan. 

—gigns [GEN], genul, genit-, deget.~ 
met6, messul, mess-, reap. A 

_-mol6, molui, molit-, erznd. 


~~ 


pasco, pavi, past-, feed. 
percello, -culi, -culs-, upset. 
pond [Pos], posul, posit-, Azz. 
quiésco, quiévi, quiét-, vest. 
rapio, rapul, rapt-, sezze. 
sciscS, scivi, scit-, decree. 
-ser6, sévi, sat-, sow. 


+ser6, serul, sert-, extwine. 


rsin6, sivi, sit-, dermzt. 
eperno, sprévi, sprét-, scorn. 


}sterno, stravi, strat-, strew. 


stert6, stertul (stertt), sore. 
strep6, strepul, strepit-, sound. 
-suésco, -suévi, -suét-, de wont. 
texo, texul, text-, weave. 
trem6, tremui, “vemble. 





occuldé, occulul, occult-, 4zde. 


vom6, vomuli, vomit-, vovz?. 


d. Adding iv to the verb-root (cf. § 124. f):— 


arcess6, -ivi, arcessit-, summon? 
capess6, capessivi, wudertake. ~ 
—cupi6d, cupivi, cupit-, deszre. 
incess6, incessivi, attack. 


pets, petivi, petit-, seck. 
-quaer6, quaesivi, quaesit-, seek. 
rud6, rudivi, rudit-, dray. 
sapid, sapivi (sapul), de wese, 





lacess6, lacessivi, lacessit-, fro- 
woke. 


ter6, trivi, trit-, 7d. 


§ 132,] Third Conjugation. 103 


é. Lengthening the vowel of the root (cf. § 124. d):— 





~ag6, égi, act-, drive. lav6, lavi, 16t- (laut-), wash (also 
capio, cépi, capt-, fake. reg. of Ist conj.). 
—~ed6, 6di, sum, eat (see § 140). “plegG,} légi, léct-, gather. 
| —em6, émi, empt., duy. lind [Lr], lévi (ivi), lit-, swear. 
| facio, féci, fact-, make (see §142)«)linqué [Lic], -liqul, -lict-, leave. 
fodi6, f6di, foss-, azz. n6sc6 [GNO], n6vi, nGt- (cd-gnit-, 
=frangd [FRAG], frégi, fract-, dreak.| a-gnit-, ad-gnit-), know. 
oe fugid, fiigi, fugit-, Ze. rump6 [RUP], ripi, rupt-, dst. 
-fund6 [Fup], fadi, fus-, our. scab6, scabi, scratch. 
| ~jaci6, iéci, iact-, throw, (-ici6;+vincd [VIC], vici, vict-, conquer. 
-iect-). 


f, Retaining the present stem or verb-root (cf. § 124. ¢):— 





arguo, -ul, -iitum, accuse. pins6, -si, pins- (pinst-, pist-), 
“™bib6, bibi, bibit-, drink. bruise. 
| -cend6, -cendi, -céns-, ézzd/e. prehend6, -di, prehéns-, sezze. 
| cud6, -ctdTI., -ciis-, forge. _[ru6, ruil, rut- (ruit-), fall. 
| facess6, facessi, facessit-, cav-|scand6, scandi, scans-, climb. 
cute. “sscind6 [scip], scidi,? sciss-, 
-fend6, -fendi, -féns-, ward off. tear. 
find6 [FID], fidi,? fiss-, split. sidG, sidi (sédi), -séss-, settle. 
ic6, ici, ict-, Az¢. solv6, solvi, soliit-, loose, pay. 
lamb6, lambi, lambit-, /a. strid6, stridi, w/zz. 
1u6, lui, luit-, wash. vell6, velli (vulsi), vuls-, pluck. 
“~mand6, mandi, mans-, chew. verr6, verri, vers-, sweep. 
nu6, nui, nuit-, zod. ot verto, verti, vers-, fur. 
| —pandd, pandi, pans- (pass-), | visd [vip], visi, vis-, v7szt. 
| open. | volvé, volvi, voliit-, urn. 


NOTE. — The following have no perfect or supine : — 


claudé, “imp. hiscs, yawn. 

fatisc6, gape. rab6, rave. 

fulg6, flash. toli6 (sustuli, sublatum supplied 
glisc6, swell. from sufferS), razse. 

glibs, feel. vergs, iucline. 





1 The following compounds of legd have -léxi: dilig6, intellegé, 
neglego, 
2 In these the perfect stem is the same as the verb-root, having lost the redupli- 
. cation (§ 124. c. note), 


104 


Etymology: Verbs. 


FOURTH CONJUGATION. 


PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, audi6, audire, audivi, auditum ; 
Passive, audior, audiri, auditus sum. 





ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Present. 
audi6, /hear. audiam audior audiar 
audis, you hear. audias audiris (-re) audiaris (-re) 
audit, de hears. audiat auditur audiatur 
audimus audiamus audimur audiamur 
auditis audiatis audimini - audiamini 
audiunt audiant audiuntur audiantur 
Imperfect. 
audiébam audirem audiébar audirer 
audiébas audirés audiébaris (-re) audir6ris (-re) 
audiébat audiret audiébatur audirétur 
audiébamus audirémus audiébamur §audirémur 
audiébatis audirétis audiébamini audirémini 
audiébant audirent audiébantur audirentur 
Future. 
audiam audiar 
audiés audiéris (-re) 
audiet audiétur 
audiémus audiémur 
audiétis audiémini 
audient audientur 
Perfect. 
audivi audiverim auditus sum _—_auditus sim 
audivisti audiveris auditus es auditus sis 
audivit audiverit auditus est auditus sit 
audivimus audiverimus auditisumus auditi simus 
audivistis audiveritis auditi estis auditi sitis 
audivérunt (-re) audiverint auditi sunt auditi sint 
Pluperfect, > 
audiveram audivissem auditus eram auditus essem 
audiveras audivissés auditus eras auditus essés 
audiverat audivisset auditus erat auditus esset 
audiveramus audivissémus auditieramus auditi essémus 
audiveratis audivissétis auditi eratis auditi essétis 
audiverant audivissent auditi erant auditi essent 











§ 133.] Fourth Conjugation. 105 
ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Future Perfect. 
audwer6d | auditus er6 
audiveris auditus eris 
audiverit auditus erit 
audiverimus auditi erimus 
audiveritis auditi eritis 
audiverint auditi erunt 
IMPERATIVE. 
SING, PLUR., SING. PLUR. 
Pres. 2. audi audite ~ audire audimini 
Fut. 2. audit6 auditdte auditor 
3. audit6 §=©audiuntd auditor audiuntor 
INFINITIVE. 
Pres. audire audiri 
Perf. audivisse auditus esse 
Fut. auditirus esse auditum iri (auditus fore) 





PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. audiéns Perf. auditus 
Fut. auditirus Ger. audiendus 
GERUND. SUPINE. 


audiendi, -d6, -dum, -d6 


auditum, auditti 


133. There are — besides a few deponents and some regular deriva- 
tives in -tirid, as ésurid, de hungry (cf. § 167. 2) —about 60 verbs of 
this conjugation, a large proportion of them being descriptive verbs: 


like — 
créci6, croak. 
ciictirid, crow. glitis, gulp. 
ébullid, dudd/e. grunnis, grunt. 
fritinniG, ‘witter. hinniG, nezgh. 


ganniG, yelp. 


hirri6, szar7. scatiris, gush. 
miigis, dellow. _tinnid, tinkle. 
muttis, mutter. tussid, cough. 


singulti6, Azccup. vagis, cry. 


Those verbs not conjugated regularly like audio, are the following: 


amici6, amixi (-cul), amict-, 
clothe. 

aperi6, aperui, apert-, ofen. 

comperi6, -peri, compert-, fizd. 

farcié, farsi, farct- (-tum), stuff 


fulcid, fulsi, fult-, Drop. 

hauris, hausi, haust- (haus-), — 
drain. 

operi6, operui, opert-, cover. 

rauci6, rausi, raus-, de hoarse. 





feriG, strike (no perfect or supine). | 


Preperi6, repperi, repert-, find. 


106 Etymology: Verbs. [§§ 134, 135 

saepi6, saepsi, saept-, hedge in. | sarrid, -ivI (-ut), -Itum, “oe. 

sali6 (-silid), salui (salii), salt-hsenti6, sénsi, séns-, feel. 
(-sult-), leap. ~sepeli6, sepelivi, sepult-, dury. 

sanci6 [SAC], sanxi, sanct., acs! singultis, -Ivi, singultum, sod. 
tion. veni6, véni, vent-, come. 

sarci6, sarsi, sart-, Jatch. vinci6, vinxi, vinct-, dnd. 





The following are regular in the perfect, but have no supine stem: — 
caecitisd, be purblind. 
démentio, de mad. 
fer6ci6 Je Lerce. 


gestis, be overjoyed. 
gl6cis, cluck (as a hen). 
inepti6, Alay the trifler. 
Parallel Forms. 


.134. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of 
which only one is generally found in classic use: as, — 
lav6, lavare or lavére, wash (see § 132. é). 
scate6, scatére or scatére, gush forth. 
liidific6, -Gre or lidificor, -dri, mock. 
fulg6, fulgére or fulge6, fulgére, shine. 





4 DEPONENT VERBS. 


135. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive 
’ “Voice, with an active or reflexive signification: as, — 


= 


Ist conj. miror, mirari, miratus, admire. 
2d conj. wereor, veréri, veritus, fear. 
3d conj. sequor, sequi, seciitus, fol//ow. 
4th conj. partior, partiri, partitus, share. 


I | 


INDICATIVE. 


™ I. ‘ yn Il. 
Pres. miror vereor 


miraris (-re) -veréris (-re) 


miratur verétur 
miramur verémur 
miramini verémini 
mirantur verentur 
Impf. mirabar verébar 
fut. mirabor verébor 


veritus sum 
veritus eram 
veritus er6 


Perf. miratus sum 
Plup. miratus eram 
fF. P. miratus erd 


Ill. 
sequor 
sequeris (-re) 
sequitur . 
sequimur 
sequiminti 
sequuntur 
sequébar 
sequar 
secitus sum 
seciitus eram 
seciitus erd6 


IV. 
partior 
partiris (-re) 
partitur 
partimur 
partimini 
partiuntur 
partiébar 
partiar 
partitus sum 
partitus eram 
partitus er6 


§ 135. | Deponent Verbs. 107 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 
I. Il. IIL, IV. 
Pres. mirer verear sequar partiar 
Lmpf. mirarer verérer sequerer - partirer 


ferf. miratus sim veritussim  sectitussim partitus sim 
Plup. miratus essem.veritus essem seciitus essem partitus essem 


IMPERATIVE. 
mirare, -Ator, etc. ver6re, -6tor sequere,-itor partire, -itor 
INFINITIVE. gens! 
Pres. mirari veréri sequi -  partiri 


Perf. miratus esse veritus esse  sectitus esse | partitus esse 
Fut. wmiratirus esse veritiirus esse seciiturus esse partiturus esse 


PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. mirans veréns sequéns — partiéns 
Fut. miratirus verittirus seciittirus partitirus 
Perf. miratus veritus seciitus * partitus 
Ger. mirandus verendus sequendus partiendus 
GERUND. : 
mirandi, -6,etc. verendi,etc. sequendi,etc. partiendti, etc. 
SUPINE. 


miratum,-ti veritum,-ti seciitum,-ti partitum, -ti 


Deponents have the participles of both voices: as, — 


$ 


 sequéns, following. secittrus, alout/to follow. 

seciitus, having followed. sequendus, /o-be-followed. 

6. The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs 
otherwise deponent it is often passive: as, mercatus, Jought ; adeptus, 
gained (or having gained ). 

c. The future infinitive is always in the active form: thus, sequor 
has seciitiirus esse (not seciitum iri). 

d. The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in trans- 
itive verbs, or neuter verbs used impersonally: as, — 


hdc c6nfitendum est, ¢hzs must be acknowledged. 
moriendum est omnibus, a// must die. 


é. Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in meaning, corresponding 
to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice (§ 111. a). 

fF. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense: as, 
criminor, / accuse, or [ am accused. 

g. About twenty verbs are, with an active meaning, dosti in both 
active and passive forms: as, mered or mereor, / deserve. 


108 


Etymology: Verbs. 


[§§ 135, 136. 


kh. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conjugation, and 


all of these are regular. 
adsentior, -iri, adsénsus, assent. 
apiscor, (-ip-), -i, aptus (-eptus);+ 

get. Bins 
défetiscor, -i, -fessus, faint. ~ 
exp6rgiscor, -i, perréctus, vowse. 
experior, -irl, expertus, /vy. 
fateor, -éri, fassus, confess. 
fatiscor, -I, gaZe. 


The following deponents are irregular : — 


Maascor, -1, natus, Je born. 

mitor, -I, nisus (nixus), s¢rzve. 

Lobliviscor, -i, oblitus, forget. 

opperior, -irI, oppertus, awazt. 

Ordior, -Iri, Grsus, degin. 

orior (3d), -iri, ortus, (oritirus), 
rise. 

paciscor, -1, pactus, dargain. 


™ fruor, -i, friictus (fruitus), ejoy. 
“Mfungor, -I, fiinctus, fuJ//. 
™-gradior (-gredior),-i, gressus, st¢7. 
irascor, -I, iratus, de angry. _— 
“™ labor, -i, lapsus, fa//. 
~—loquor, -i, locititus (loquiitus), 
speak. | 
-miniscor, -i, -mentus, ¢hznxk. 
™~ m&tior, -iri, ménsus, measure. | 
~.morior, -i (-iri), mortuus (mori- 


patior (-petior), -i, passus (-pes- 
sus), suffer. 

-plector, -i, -plexus, clasf. 

.proficiscor, -I, profectus, se/-out. 

queror, -i, questus, complain. 

reor, réri, ratus, think. 

revertor, -I, reversus, refurn. 

ringor, -i, rictus, szar/. 

Lsequor, -I, seciitus (sequiitus), 


follow. 





tirus, de. tueor, -éri, tuitus (tutus), defend. 
nanciscor, -I, nactus (nanctus),}ulciscor, -i, ultus, avenge. 
jind. __|iitor, -I, iisus, wse, emeploy. 


NOTE.— The deponent comperior, -iri, compertus, is rarely found for 
comperi6. Revertor, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms 
in the perfect system, reverti, reverteram, etc. 


z. The following deponents have no supine stem : — 
dévertor, -ti, urn aside (to lodge). | medeor, -éri, Heal. 
diffiteor, -éri, deny. reminiscor, -i, call to mind. 
liquor, -i, melt (neut.). i vescor, -I, feed upon. 

NoTE. — Deponents ate only passive (or middle) verbs whose active has dis- 
appeared. There is hardly one that does not show at some period of the 
language signs of being used in the active. 

Semi-Deponents. 

136. A few verbs having no perfect stem are regular 
in the present, but appear in the tenses of completed action 
as deponents. These are called semz2-deponents or neuter 
passives. They are:— 

“aude, audére, ausus, dave.~-gaude6, gaudére, gavisus, rejoice. 
fidé, fidére, fisus, trust.  ~-soled, solére, solitus, de wont. 


——- 


$$ 136, 137.] Deponent Verbs. 109 


a. From audeé there is an old subjunctive perfect ausim. The 
form s6dés (for si audés), an thou wilt, is frequent in the dramatists 
and rare elsewhere. 7 

&. The active forms vapul6, vapulare, de flogged, and véned, 
vénire, Je sold (contracted from vénum Ire, go fo sale), have a passive 
meaning, and are sometimes called meutral passives. To these may 
be added fieri, Zo de made (see § 142), and exsulare, ¢o be banished 
(live in exile). 

NOTE.— The following verbs are sometimes found as semi-deponents: itird, 
ifrare, iir&tus, swear; ntib6, nibere, nfiipta, marry; placed, placére, 


placitus, please. 
' [For the regular Derivative Forms of Verbs, see § 167.] 


IRREGULAR VERBS. 


137. Several verbs add some of the personal endings 
of the present system directly to the root, or combine two 
verbs in their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs 
(cf. p. 86). They are sum, volé, ferd, edd, qued, ed, f16, and 
their compounds. 

Sum has already been inflected in § 119. 

a. Sum is compounded without any change of inflection with the 
prepositions ab, ad, dé, in, inter, ob, prae, pr6 (pr6d), sub, super. 

In the compound pr6sum, pr6 retains its original d before e. 
Thus, — 


INDIC. SUBJ. 
Pres. pr6sum, J help. présim 
prodes prosis 
prodest prosit 
présumus prosimus 
prodestis prositis 
prosunt prosint 


imp. proderam, / was helping. proédessem 

Fut. pr6der6, f shall help. 

Perf. proéful, / helped. profuerim 

Plupf. prSfueram, / had helped.  prdfuissem 

F. P. profuers, J shall have helped. 
IMPER. prddes, prddest6, etc. 
InFIN. Pres. prédesse ferf. préfuisse fut. préfutirus esse 
PART. profutiirus, about to help. 


IIO Etymology: Verbs, [§§ 137, 138. 


6. Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis, or pote, ad/z, 
making the verb possum. This is inflectéd as follows : — 


INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. possum, / can. possim 
potes, you can. possis 
potest, he can. possit 
possumus, we can. _ possimus 
potestis, you can. possitis 
possunt, they can. possint 
Imp. poteram, J could. possem 
Fut. poterd, / shall be able. 
Perf. potui, / could. potuerim 
Plupf. potueram potuissem 
F. P. potuers, / shall have been able. 
INFIN. Pres. posse ‘ Perf. potuisse 
PART. poténs (adj.), Jowerful. 


NOTE.— The forms potis sum, pote sum, etc., occur in early writers. 
Other early forms are potesse; possiem, -6s, -et; poterint, potisit (for 
possit); potestur (with pass. inf. cf. § 143. a). 

138. Vol6 and its compounds are inflected as follows: — 

vol6, velle, volui, wish. 


n6l6 (for né vold), nélle, ndlui, de unwilling, Pas 
al6 (for magis or mage vol6), mAlle, malui, wish rather, prefer. 
3 Present, : 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SuBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
vold velim ndlsd *ndlim mald malim 
vis velis nonvis nolis miavis malis 
volt (vult) velit nonvolt ndlit mavolt malit 
volumus velimus ndlumus nodlimus malumus miéalimus 
voltis(vul)velitis © n6dnvultis ndlitis mavultis malitis 
volunt velint nolunt nolint méalunt malint 
Imperfect. . A 
volébam vellem nolébam ndllem malébam mdallem 
Future. 
volam ndolam malam 
volés, etc. ndlés, etc. - malés, etc. 
Perfect. 
volui _voluerim nodlui noluerim maluT maluerim 
Pluperfect. 


volueram voluissem n6lueram n6luissem mdalueram mAluissem 


Future Perfect, 
voluer6 | ndluerd | maluerd ( 





/ 


Irregular Verbs. | III 


§§ 138, 139.] 
IMPERATIVE. 
Pres, noli ndlite, do not. 


Fut. nodlits 
nolits 

INFINITIVE. 
noluisse 


ndlitote, thou shalt not, ye shall not. 


velle voluisse nolle malle maluisse 


PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. voléns, willing. n6dléns, unwilling. 
.GERUND. 
volendi (late) 
NoTe.— The forms sis for si vis, stiltis for si voltis, and the forms né 
vol6, névis (n6é-vis), mage volo, mavol6, etc., occur in early writers. 


139. Ferd, ferre, tili, latum,! dear. 





ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. ~ INDIC. SUBJ. 
Pres. ferd feram feror ferar 
fers feras ferris feraris (-re) 
fert ferat fertur feratur 
ferimus feramus ferimur feramur 
fertis feratis ferimini feramini 
ferunt ferant feruntur ferantur 
Impf. ferébam _ferrem ferébar ferrer 
Fut. feram ferar 
Perf. tuli tulerim latus sum latus sim 
Plup. tuleram tulissem latus eram latus essem 
fF. P. tulerd latus er6 
IMPERATIVE. 
Pres. fer ferte ferre ferimini 
Fut. fertsd fertdte fertor 
fertd feruntd fertor feruntor 
INFINITIVE. 
Pres. ferre ferri 
Perf. tulisse latus esse ) 
Fut. latirus esse latum iri (latus fore) 
PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. feréns Perf. latus 
Fut. ilatirus Ger. ferendus 





GERUND: ferendi, -d6, -dum, -dd 


1 The perfect tulf is for tetuli (which sometimes occurs), from TUL, root of 
toll6; the supine létum is for ¢tlatum (cf. rAn7ds). 


-SUPINE: latum, -ti 





112 Etymology: Verbs. | [§ 140. 


140. Edé, edere, édi, ésum, ea/, is regular of the third conju- 
gation, but has also some forms directly from the root (ED) without the 
characteristic vowel. These are in full-faced type. 

















ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
eee Present, 
edd edam (edim) edor edar 
edis (és) edas (edis) ederis (-re) _ edaris (-re) 
edit (6st) edat (edit) editur (Estur) edatur 
edimus edamus (edimus) | edimur edamur 
editis (Estis) edatis (editis) edimini edamini 
edunt- edant (edint) eduntur edantur 
Imperfect. 
edébam ederem (€ssem) edébar ederer 
edébas ederes (6ss8és) edébaris (-re) ederéris (-re) 
edébat ederet (Esset) edébatur — ederétur (éssétur) 
. Puture. 
edam edar 
edés edéris 
edet, efc. edétur, ezc. 
/ Perfect. 
édi éderim } ésus sum ésus sim 
Pluperfect. 
éderam édissem | ésus eram ésus essem 
Future Perfect. 
éderd | &sus erd 
IMPERATIVE. 
ede (6s) —_— edite (ste) edere edimini 
editd (Est6) editdte (EstGte) editor 
edits (std) eduntd editor eduntor 
INFINITIVE. 
edere (€sse) edi 
Edisse ésus esse 
ésiirus esse ésum iri 
PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. edéns Perf. &sus 
Fut. ésiirus Ger. edendus 
GERUND. | _ SUPINE. 


| edendi, -d6, -dum, -dé ésum, -sii 


§ 141.] . lrregular Verbs. 113 


141. 6, ire, ivi, itum, go.! + : 
we INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. S. 6, is, it eam, eas, eat 
P. Imus, itis, eunt eamus, eadtis, eant 
Imperf. Tham, ibas, Ibat irem, irés, iret 
Ibamus, ibatis, Ibant Irémus, irétis, frent 
Future. %b6, This, Tbit 
Tbimus, fbitis, Ibunt 






Perfect. vi (ii) iverim (ierim) 
Pluperf. Iveram (ieram) ivissem (issem) 
fut. Perf.ivers (ierd) 

IMPERATIVE. 

i, ite, It6, it6, itdte, euntd 

INFINITIVE. 
Pres. tre ' Perf. ivisse (isse) ut, itiirus esse 

PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. iéns, euntis /wf. itirus Ger. eundum 
GERUND: eundi, -d6, -dum, -d6 SUPINE: itum, iti 


a. The compounds ade6, approach, ines, enter, and some others, 
are transitive. They are inflected as follows in the passive: — 


INDIC. © Sup]. 
Pres. adeor Impf. adibar Pres. adear 
adiris Fut. adibor Impf. adirer 
aditur /erf. aditus sum Perf. aditus sim 
adimur /lup~, aditus eram Plup. aditus essem 
adimini /.P. aditus erd INFIN. adiri, aditus esse 
adeuntur PART. aditus adeundus 


Thus inflected, the forms of eG are used impersonally in the third 
person singular of the passive: as, itum est (§ 146.d). The infini- 
tive Iri is used with the supine in -um to make the future infinitive 
passive (§ 147.¢.1). The verb véneG, de sold (z.e. vénum e6, go to 
sale), has also several forms in the passive. 

5. In the perfect system of e6 the forms without v are more common, 
and in the compounds are regular: as, adif, adieram, adiisse (adisse). 

c. The compound ambi is inflected regularly like a verb of the 
fourth conjugation. But it has also ambibat in the imperfect indicative. 

d. Pr6 with eG retains its original d: as, préde6, prédis, prédit. 





1 Root I, cf. eZus; the e@ stands for ei, lengthened form of the root I. 


114 Etymology: Verbs. [ss 142, 143. 


142, FPacié, facére, féci, factum, make, 1s regular. But it has 
imperative fac in the active, and besides the regular forms the future 
perfect fax6, perfect subjunctive faxim. The passive of facid is — 


fi6, fiéri, factus sum, de made, or become. 


The tenses of the first stem of fi6 are regular of the fourth con- 
jugation, but the subjunctive imperfect is fierem, and the infinitive 
fieri. 


INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. S. £16, fis, fit fiam, fiads, fiat 
fP. fimus, fitis, flunt fiamus, fiatis, fiant 
Imperf. fiébam, fiébas, etc. fierem, fierés, etc. 
Future. fiam, fiés, etc. 
Perfect. factus sum factus sim 
Pluperf. factus eram factus essem 
Fut. Perf. factus erd 
IMPER. fi, fite, fit6, fitote, flunt6 
INFIN. Pres. fieri Perf. factus esse Fut. factum iri 
Part. ferf. factus Ger. faciendus 


a. Most compounds of faci6 with prepositions change 4 to i (pres- 
ent stem), or & (supine stem), and are inflected regularly: as, — 


cGnfici6, c6nficére, c6nféci, c6nfectum, finzsh. 
c6nficior, cOnfici, c6nfectus. 
6. Other compounds retain a, and have -f16 in the passive: as, 


benefaci6, -facere, -féci, -factum; pass. benefid, -fieri, -factus, 
benefit. These retain the accent of the simple verb: as, bene-fa’cis 


(§ 19. Z). 


c. A few isolated forms of -f16 occur 1n other compounds: viz., — 


confit, 7¢ happens. défit, zt lacks. iInfit, he begins (to speak). 


confiet défiunt infiunt 

cénfiat défiet effieri, 40 be effected. 
confieret défiat interfieri, fo ferish. 
confieri défieri interfiat, let him perish. 


DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
143. Some verbs have lost their Present stem, and use 
only tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected reg- 
ularly. These are — 


§§ 143, 144.] Defective Verbs. 115 


a. Coepi,! / began ; Infin. coepisse; Fut. Part. coeptiirus; Perf. 
Pass. Part. coeptus. 

The passive is used with the passive infinitive: as, coeptus sum 
vooari, / began to be called, but coepi vocare, / began to call (cf. § 
144. g, note). For the present incipié is used. 

b. Odi, / hate}? perfect participle sus, ating or hated (perésus, © 
utterly hateful), future participle Sstirus, Zkely fo hate. 

c. Memini, / remember 3% with the Imperative mementé, me- 
mentéte; Part. meminéns. 

Nom Gal and memin! have a perfect form with a present meaning, and 
are called preteritive verbs. NOvi and cOnsu6évi (usually referred to n6sc6 and 
cdnsuéscS3) are often used in the sense of / £now (have learned), and J am accus- 
tomed (have become accustomed), as preteritive verbs. Many other verbs are 
occasionally used in the same way (see § 279. Remark). 

144, Many verbs are found only in the present system. Such are 
maereé, -ére, be sorrowful (cf. maestus, sad); feriG, -Ire, strike. 

In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts occur 
in its compounds: as, vad6, vadere, invasi, invasum. 

Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms: as,— 

a. Aid, Tsay: — 

Inpic. Pres. 416, ais, ait; ——~— aiunt 
Impf. Aiébam (albam), a4iébas, etc. 

Supj. Pres. aids, aiat, diant 

IMPER. ai 

PART. aiéns 





6. Inquam, / say (used only, except in poetry, in direct quotations, 
like the English guoth, which is possibly from the same root) : — 
Inpic. Pres. inquam, inquis, inquit 
inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt 
Impf. inquiébat 
fut. inquiés, -et 
Perf. inquisti, inquit 
IMPER. inque, inquitd6 
c. The deponent fari, fo speak, forms the perfect tenses regularly : 
as, fatus sum, eram, etc. It has also— 
Inpic. Pres. fatur, fantur 
Fut. fabor, fabitur 





IMPER. fare 
INFIN. fari 
1 Root AP (as in apiscor) with co(n-). 2 Root OD, as in 6dium, 


8 Root MEN, as in mMéns, 


116 Etymology: Verbs. [§ 144. 


Part. Pres. (dat.) fanti 
Perf. fatus, having spoken. 
Ger. fandus, éo be spoken of. 
GER. fandi, -d6 
SUP. fatii 


Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, pr6, inter, 
occur: as, praefatur, affari, proéfatus, interfatur, etc. The com- 
pound infans is regularly used as a noun (chz/d). Infandus, nefandus, 
are used as adjectives, wusfpeakable, abominable. 
d. Quaes6, / ask, deg (original form of quaerG, § 132. d), has — 
InpIc. Pres. quaes6, quaestimus 
INFIN. - quaesere 
PART. quaeséns 


é. Ovare, to triumph, has the following : — 


Inpic. Pres. ovat 
SuBJ. Pres. ovet 
Imperf. ovaret 
PART. ovans, ovatiirus, ovatus 
GER. ovandi 


jf. A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative: as, — 


Pres. sing. salvé, plur. salvéte, haz/! (from salvus, 
safeand sound). Aninfin. salvére also occurs. 

Pres. sing. avé (or havé), plur. avéte, vt. avét6, 
hail or farewell. 

Pres. sing. cedo, plur. cedite (cette), g7ve, Zell. 

Pres. sing. apage! Jegone! (properly a Greek word). 

g. Qued, 7 can, nequed, / cannot, are conjugated like e6. They 
are rarely used except in the present. 


INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Present. 

quesd ‘queam neque (nén queG) nequeam 

quis queas nonquis nequeas 

quit queat nequit nequeat 

quimus queamus nequimus nequeamus 

quitis queatis nequitis nequeatis 

queunt queant nequeunt nequeant 
Imperfect. 

quibam quirem nequibam nequirem 

quibat quiret nequibat nequiret 


quibant quirent nequibant nequirent 


§§ 144, 145. ] Impersonal Verbs. 117 








INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. Supj. 
Future. 
quibd 
quibunt nequibunt 
Perfect. 
quivi nequivi 
— —_-- nequivisti 
quivit quiverit nequivit 
quivérunt nequivérunt 
Pluperfect. 
—_— quissent nequisset 
INFINITIVE. 
quire quivisse (quisse) nequire nequivisse 
es PARTICIPLES. 
quiéns, queuntis nequiéns 


NOTE,—A few passive forms are used by old writers with passive infinitives : 
as, quitur, quitus, queatur, queantur, nequitur, nequitum; cf. possum 
and coepi ($§ 137. note and 143. a). 


Impersonal Verbs. 

145. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in 
the third person singular, the infinitive, and the gerund. 
These are called Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal 
subject.1 Their synopsis may be given as follows: — 


Con]. I. i. III. IV. Pass, CON]. I. 

it is plain. itis allowed, it chances. it results. at is fought. 
constat licet accidit évenit ptugnatur 
constabat licébat accidébat €veniébat pignabatur 
cénstabit lic&bit feg, accidet Eveniet  piignabitut 
constitit licuit, -itum accidit événit ptgnatum est 
cOnstiterat  licuerat acciderat 6vénerat pignatum erat 
constiterit licuerit acciderit Gvénerit piignatum erit 
constet liceat accidat éveniat pignétur 
constaret licéret accideret €veniret pignarétur 
constiterit licuerit acciderit Gvénerit pitgnatum sit 
constitisset licuisset accidisset 6vénisset ptignatumesset 
cOnstare licére accidére évenire pignari 
constitisse licuisse accidisse 6vénisse pignatum esse 


-tiirum esse pignatum iri 





-statirum esse -itiirum esse 





1 With impersonal verbs the word IT is used in English, having usually no rep- 
resentative in Latin, though id, h6c, illud, are often used nearly in the same way. 


- 
Pry 


118 Etymology: Verbs. [§ 146. 


146. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : — 


a. Verbs expressing the oferations of nature and the time of day: 
as, pluit, z¢ raivs 3 ningit, zt snows; grandinat, z¢ haz/s; fulgurat, 2? 
lightens 3 vesperascit (inceptive, § 167. a2), z# grows late; laicet hic 
iam, 7 zs getting light now. 

NOTE.—In these no subject is distinctly thought of. Sometimes, however, the 
verb is used personally with the name of a divinity as the subject: as, Iippiter 


tonat, Fupiter thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasionally used: as 
fundae saxa pluunt, the slings rain stones. 


b. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject 
becomes the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed 
in the verb (§ 221.4). Such are: miseret, z# grieves; paenitet 
(poenitet), zt repents; piget, zt disgusts ; pudet, zt shames; taedet, 
it wearies? as, Miseret mé, / fzty (it distresses me). 

NOTE.— Such verbs often have also a passive form: as, misereor, / pity 


(am moved to pity); and occasionally other parts: as, paenittirus (as from 
tpaenis), paenitendus, pudendus, pertaesum est, pigitum est. 


c. Verbs which have a fhrase or clause as their subject (§§ 270. a, 

330, 332. @): as,— 
accidit, contingit, évenit, obtingit, obvenit, fit, zt happens. 
libet, zt Dleases. 
licet, z¢ zs permitted. 
certum est, z¢ zs resolved. 
constat, zt zs clear. 
placet, vidétur, z¢ seems good. 
decet, z¢ zs becoming. 
délectat, iuvat, zt delights. 
oportet, necesse est, 7 zs needful. 
praestat, z¢ zs better. 
interest, réfert, 2¢ concerns. 
vacat, there zs leisure. 
restat, superest, z¢ remains. 

NOTE.— Many of these verbs may be used personally. Libet and licet have 
also the passive forms libitum (licitum) est, etc. The participles libéns 
and lic6ns are used as adjectives. 

ad. The fassive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally : 
as, pignatur, there zs fighting (it is fought) ; Itur, some one goes (it is 
gone); parcitur mihi, / am spared (it is spared to me, see § 230).} 





1 This use of the passive proceeds from its original refexive meaning, the action 
being regarded as accomplishing itself {compare the French ¢eda se fait). 


§ 147.] Origin and History of Verb-Forms. 119 


Periphrastic Forms. 


147. The following periphrastic forms are found in the 
inflection of the verb :— 


a. The so-called “ Periphrastic Conjugations” (see § 129). 

&. The tenses of completed action in the passive formed by the 
tenses of esse with the perfect participle: as, amatus est. 

c. The future infinitive passive, formed as follows: —~ 

1. By the infinitive passive of e6, go, used impersonally with the 

supine in -um: as, amatum iri. 

2. By fore (or futiirum esse), with the perfect participle (as 
amatus fore). 

3. By fore with ut and the subjunctive (cf. § 288. f). 


NOTE. . 
Origin and History of Verb-Forms. 


The forms that make up the conjugation of a verb are composed of 
formations from a root, originally separate, but gradually grouped to- 
gether, and afterwards supplemented by new formations made on old 
lines to supply deficiencies. Some of these forms were inherited, 
already made, by the Latin language; others were developed in the 
course of the history of the language itself. 

1. PRESENT STEM. — The Present stem is a modification or develop- 
ment of the root (see § 123). In regular forms of the First, Second, 
and Fourth Conjugations it appears in all the other parts of the verb 
(including noun and adjective forms) as well, and is accordingly called 
the Verb-Stem. 

The tenses of the Present system are made from the Present stem 
as follows : — : 

a. In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added directly 
to the present stem. Thus root AR, present- (and verb-) stem ara-; 
ara-s, ara-mus, ara-tis. 

6. In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -bas, etc. (originally a 
complete verb), is added. bam is probably the imperfect of the root 
BHU (cf. ful, futirus, £16, diw, de), meaning was. This was added 
to a complete word originally a case of a noun, as in J was a-ploughing, 
hence ara-bam. The form probably began in the second or the third 
conjugation and from that was extended to the others. 

c. In the Future Indicative a similar suffix, -b6, -bis, etc., is added 
(by the same process). bé6 is probably a present form of the same 
root BHU, with a future meaning: as, ara-b6. . 


120 Etymology: Verbs. 


This form once in use in all the conjugations was later supplanted 
in the third and fourth by an inherited form, which was originally 
an optative mood, differing from the present indicative only in the final 
vowel of the stem (see § 126. ¢. 1): as, sugé-b6 (old); sugam, sugés 
(later). | 

ad. In the Present Subjunctive the personal terminations were added 
to another form of present stem of great antiquity with a different 
vowel: as, amem, moneam, audiam. 

é. In the Imperfect Subjunctive a suffix, -rem, -res, etc., was added. 
-rem is doubtless a very old modal form of sum diverted from its 
original use. 

f. The noun and adjective forms of the Present system were 
originally separate formations made from the root by means of 
noun-suffixes. These forms being associated with the verb became 
types for the formation of new ones from the present stem, in cases 
where no such formation from the root ever existed. Thus regere 
is originally a dative (or locative) of a noun like genus, generis; 
but as regere seems to be rege + re, so ara-re was made in the samé 
manner. Gerendus is the noun-stem gerGn-, 7.2. GER + Gn- (gerd, 
-Snis, § 162.¢) + dus; but it seemed to be gere + ndus, and thus 
gave rise to ama-ndus. 


2. PERFECT STEM.— The Latin inherited from the parent Indo- 
European speech preterite forms of two kinds: — 

a. In the real perfect (perfect with ave in English) the proper 
terminations (see § 118) are added directly to a root-form, which was 
originally a reduplication (doubling) of the root with vowel change. 
Thus st6, root sTA, perfect steti (for tstesti); cf. pungd (root PUG), 
pupiigi (later pupugi). 

6. In other inherited verbs the perfect was formed by a verbal 
auxiliary (some form of sum) added to the root (or later to the present 
stem). Thus dic6, root pic, perfect. dic-si (dixi). This auxiliary 
being a complete verb-form, contained, of course, the personal termi- 
nations. 

¢. The remaining perfects were formed with a suffix -vi, of uncertain 
origin, but containing the personal terminations. But these formative 
processes had been forgotten long before the Latin language reached 
the stage in which we know it. , The form in -vi, however, became the 
type for new Perfects. By the Romans, the first person singular of the 
Perfect (however formed), losing its final vowel, was treated as a new 
stem, from which other forms were developed by the use of added 
auxiliaries or by analogy with those already formed. This stem is 


Origin and History of Verb-Forms. ———‘121 


called the Perfect Stem. Thus were formed the Pluperfect and the 
Future Perfect Indicative, the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and 
the Perfect Infinitive. The terminations of these tenses are parts 
of sum in some form or other, but precisely how they are made is 
uncertain. 

3. SuPINE STEM.— The Perfect and Future Participles and the 
Supine, though strictly noun-forms, each with its own suffix, agree in 
having the first letter of the suffix (t) the same and in suffering the 
same phonetic changes (by which the t becomes 8, § I1. a. 2). 

Hence these forms, along with several sets of derivatives (see 
§§ 162. a, 163. 6, 164. mz) used as nouns or adjectives, were felt by the 
Romans as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated 
with the Supine Stem. Thus, — 


ping6, pictum, pictus, pictiirus, pictiira, pictor. 
ride6, risum (for rid-tum), risus (part.), risus (noun), ristrus, 
risio, risor, risibilis. 


The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between 
the Root (or verb-stem) and the Personal ending. No such insertion 
is possible in a developed language like the Latin. All true verb-forms 
are the result, as shown above, of comzfosition ; that is, of adding to 
the root or the verb-stem either pronouns (personal endings) or fully 
developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal termina- 
tions), or of adding similar auxiliaries to the perfect stem; or of imi- 
tation of such processes. Thus amabamus is made by adding to 
ama-, originally a significant word, or a form conceived as such, a full 
verbal form ¢bamus, not by inserting ba between am4- and -mus. 


cae Etymology: Particles. [§ 148. 


CuHapTerR VII.— Particles. 


Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are called 
PARTICLES. 

In their origin these words are either (1) case-forms, 
actual or extinct, or (2) compounds and phrases. 


Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are 
used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions ($§ 152 and 155), 
and interjections must be reckoned as particles (§ 27). 


1.—ADVERBS. 
1. Derivation. 
148. Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives as 
follows :— : 


a. From adjectives of the frst and second declensions, by changing 
the characteristic vowel of the stem to -6: as, caré, dearly, from 
carus, dear (stem caro-). 

NOTE.— The ending -6 is a relic of an old ablative in -6d (cf. § 36. /). 

b. From adjectives of the ¢hird declension by adding -ter to the 
stem. Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as 
i-stems. Thus, — : 

fortiter, dravely, from fortis (stem forti-), drave. 
acriter, eagerly, from acer (stem Acri-), eager. 
vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilans (stem vigilant-). 
priidenter, Jrudently, from priidéns (stem priident-). 
aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-). 

NoTE.— This suffix is probably the same as -ter in the Greek -Tepos and in 
uter, alter (p. 49,n.1). Ifso, these adverbs are neuter accusatives (cf. d). 

c. Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs 
of both forms (-6 and -ter). Thus diirus, dard, has both diré and 
diiriter; miser, wretched, has both miseré and miseriter. 

@. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as 
an adverb: as, multum, such; facilé, easily; quid, why. 

So regularly in the comparative degree: as, acrius, more keenly 
(positive Acriter) ; facilius, more easily (positive, facilé). 

NOTE, — These adverbs are strictly cognate accusatives (see } 240. a). 


§ 148.] Derivation of Adverbs, 123 


é. The ablative neuter or (less commonly) feminine of adjectives, 
pronouns, and nouns, may be used adverbially : as, fals6, falsely; citd, 
quickly; xécta (vid), straight (straightway); crébré, frequently; 
forté, by chance; sponté, of one’s own accord. 

jf. Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use: as, abundé, 
plentifully (as if from tabundus, cf. abundd, abound); saepé, often 
(ct. saepés, Hedge, and saepid, Aedge in); props, almosé (as if from 
tpropis). 

NOTE. — Many adverbs and other particles are case-forms of nouns or pronouns, 
In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful. Examples may be 
seen in the following: — 

a, Accusative forms: &ctitum, guickiy; nbn (for né6 inum), zo; iterum 
(comparative of is), @ second time; ASmum (superlative of dé, down), at 
last. 

8, Ablative or Instrumental forms ($ 31. 2): Qué, where; Contra, on the other 
hand ; intr&, within; qui, ow; aliqui, somehow; Volg6, commonly; fristra, 
in vain; foris, out of doors. 

yy. Datives of adjectives and pronouns: as, qu6, whither; ade6, ¢o that 
degree; Tiltrd, deyond; citrd, this side (as end of motion); retro, dack; ill6c 
(for 1116-ce), weakened to illic, thither. 

REMARK. — Those in -tr6 are from comparative stems (cf. fils, cis, re-), 

6. Locative forms: ibi, ¢here; ubi, where; peregri (peregré), abroad; 
hic (for thoi-ce), dere; interim, meanwhile (cf. inter) ; ind6, thence ; tamen, 
yet; Slim (from ollus, old form of ille), ozce. Also the compounds extrinsecus, 
outside ; hodié (hoi + dié), to-day; perendié, day after to-morrow, 

€, Feminine accusatives: statim, on the spot; saltim, at deast (generally 
saltem), from lost nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular 
adverbial termination; and by means of it adverbs were made from many noun and 
verb stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an 
accusative in -tim: as, sépar&tim, separately, from s6paratus, separate. Some 
adverbs that appear to be feminine accusative are perhaps locative: as, palam, 
openly; perperam, wrongly; tam, so; Quam, as, 

¢. Plural accusatives: as, alias, elsewhere; for&s, out of doors (as end of 
motion). 

y- Of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tus (usually preceded by 4), with an 
ablative meaning: as, funditus, from the bottom, utterly; Aivinitus, from above, 
providentially; intus, within; penitus, within; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -d6: 
as, quidem, indeed; Quondam, once; Quands6 (cf. dbnec), when; (3) dum 
(probably accusative of time), wi/e; iam (perhaps locative, cf. nam), “ow, 

9, Phrases or clauses which have grown together into adverbs (cf. motwithstand- 
ing, nevertheless, besides): anted, old antidea, de/ore (ante e&, probably ablative 
or instrumental) ; postmodo, fresently (post modo, a short time after); A6nusG, 
anew (A6 novd); prérsus, absolutely (prS vorsus, straight ahead); quot- 
annis, yearly (quot annis, as many years as there are); Quam-ob-rem, 
wherefore; COminus, hand to hand (con manus); 6minus at long range 
(ex manus); ob-viam (as in ire obviam, é0 20 zo meet); pridem (cf. prae 
and dem ini-dem), jor some time; forsan (fors an fest]) perhaps (it's a 
chance whether); forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps (it would be a chance 
whether); scilicet (sci, licet), that is to say (know, you may); vidélicet 
(vid6, licet), to wit (see, you may). 


124 Etymology: Particles. [§ 149. 


2. Classification. 
149. Adverbs are classified as follows :— 


a. ADVERBS OF PLACE.! 


hic, here. hiic, Azther. hine, hence. hac, dy this way. 


ibi, there. e6, thither. inde, thence. ea, by that way. 
istic, there. istiic, ¢izther.istine, thence. ista, dy that way. 
illic, there. illiic, ‘hither. illine, thence. illa(illac), “ 
ubi, where. quo, whither. unde, whence. qua, by what way. 
alicubi, somewhere. aliquG,zo, etc. alicunde, from, etc. aliqua, dy, etc. 
ibidem, 27 the same eOdem indidem eadem 

place. 
alibi, elsewhere. alid aliunde alia 
ubiubi, wherever. quoqusd undecunque quaqua 
ubivis, azywhere. qu6vis undique quavis 
sicubi, z/anywhere. siquo sicunde siqua 
nécubi, fest * néqud nécunde néqua 
usque, ail the way fo. citr6, to this side. 
usquam, anywhere. intro, zxzwardly. 
nusquam, zowhere. porrs, further on. 


tiltr6, deyond (or freely, z.e. beyond what is required). 


quérsum (for qué vorsum, whither retrérsum, backward. 


turned ?), to what end? sirsum, wpward. 
horsum, ¢his way. €eorsum, downward. 
prorsum, forward (prorsus, uwiferly). seorsum, apart. 
intr6rsum, zzwardly. aliorsum, another way - 


6. ADVERBS OF TIME. 


quands6? when? (interrog.); cum (quom, quum), whew (relat.); 
ut, when, as. 

nunc, zow; tune (tum), tien; mox, presently ; iam, already; dum, 
while. 





1 The demonstrative adverbs hic, ibi, istic, illic, and their correlatives, cor- 
respond in signification with the pronouns hic, is, iste, ille (see § 102), and are 
often equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition: as, inde= ab 66, etc. 
So the relative or interrogative ubi corresponds with qui (quis), ali-cubi with 
aliquis, ubiubi with quisquis, sl-cubi with siquis (see §§ 104, 105, with the 
table of Correlatives in § 106). All these adverbs were originally case-forms of 
pronouns. The forms in -bi, -Ic, -inc, and -unde are locative, those in -6 and 
-lic dative, those in -& and -&ic ablative or instrumental (p. 123, note). 


§ 149.] Classification of Adverbs. 125 


primum (primS), first; deinde (posted), ze2x¢ after; postrémum 
(postrémS), fizally; posteaquam, postquam, when (after that, 
as s00n as). 

umquam (unquam), ever; numquam (nunquam), zever; semper, 
always. 

aliquandé, at some time, at length; quanddque (quanddcumque), 
whenever ; Aénique, at last. 

quotiéns (quotiés), dow often; totiéns, so often; aliquotiéns, a 
number of times. 

cotidié (quotidié), every day; in diés, from day to day. 

nondum, wot yet; necdum, sor yet; vixdum, scarce yet; quam 
primum, as soon as possible; saepe, often; crébr6, frequently ; 
iam non, zo longer. 


c. ADVERBS OF DEGREE OR CAUSE. 


quam, ow, as; tam, so; quamvis, however much, although; quo6- 
modo, sow. 

cir, quaré, why; quod, quia, quoniam (for quom-iam), decause ; 
e6, therefore. 

ita, sic, so; ut (uti), as, how; utut, utcumque, however. 

quamquam (quanquam), although, and yet; et, etiam, quoque, 
even, also. 

ad. INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES. 

an, -ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num, whether. 

ndnne, annon, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all (ecquid 
intellegis? have you any idea? do you understand at all?). 

utrum (num), -ne, whether; ...an (ann6n, necne), or. 


‘a 
emma 66 a 


é. NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 

n6n, zof (in simple denial); haud (hau, haut), minimé, zof (in con- 
tradiction); né, zof (in prohibition); néve, neu, zor; nédum, 
much less. 

né, Zest; neque, nec, zor; né... quidem, molt even. 

non modo... vérum (sed) etiam, zo/ only .. . but also. 

n6én modo ...sed né... quidem, of only NOT... . but not even. 

st minus, 7f zof; qué minus (quéminus), so as not. 

quin (relat.), dt that; (interrog.), why not ? 

né, nec (in compos.), zof; so in nescid, J know not; negd, J say 
no (416, 7 say yes); negdtium, dsiness (nec Stium); némd (né 
hdm3), 20 one; né quis, lest any one; necopinatus, wnexpected; 
neque enim, for . . . ot. | 


126 Etymology: Particles. [S$ 149-51 


J. ADVERBS OF MANNER (see § 148). 
g. NUMERAL ADVERBS (see § 96). 


_%. Peculiar Uses of Adverbs. 


150. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative: 
as, oe : 

nemo non audiet, every one will hear (nobody will not hear). 

a. Many compounds of which nGn is the first part express an zz- 
definite affirmative: as, — 

nonniullus, some, nOonnulli (= aliqui), some few. 

nonnihil (= aliquid), something. 

nonnemo (= aliquot), swnary persons, 

nonnumquam (= aliquotiens), sometimes. 

necnon, @éso (nor not). 

- 6. Two negatives of which the second is n6n (belonging to the 

predicate) express a universal affirmative: as, — 

nemo non, nullus non, zobody [does] m7, i.e. everybody [does] (cf. nonnémo 

above, ot nobody, i.e. somebody). 

nihil non, everything. 

numquam non, xever not, i.e. always (cf. nOnnumquam above, zof never, 
i.e. sometimes). 


151. The following adverbs require special notice : — 


a. Etiam (et iam), also, even, is stronger than quoque, a/so, and 
usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it: as, — 


non verbis solum sed etiam vi (Verres ii. 64), ot only by words, but also 


by force. 
hoc quoque maleficium (Rose. A. 117), ¢hés crime too. 


6. Nunc (for ¢num-ce) means definitely now, in the immediate 
present, and is not used as in English of past time. Iam means ow, 
already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time 
through which the state of things described has been or will be reached. 
It may be used of amy time. With negatives it means (0) longer. 

Tum, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any 
time. Tunc, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of tum 
(ttum-ce, cf. nunc). Thus— 

ut fam antea dixi, as 7 have already said before. . 

si iam satis aetatis atque roboris habéret (Rosc. Amer. 149), if he had 

attained a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will ey 


and by). 
‘non est iam lenitati locus, chere ts no longer room for mercy. 


aE. 


— ee ee eT ae ey  eeeee ee ee oS se 2 le 


§§ 151, 152] Prepositions, | 127 


quod iam erat institiitum, which had come to be a practice (had now been 

established). 

nune quidem deéléta est, tune flérebat (Lal. 13), zow (’tis true) she 

[Greece] ¢s ruined, then she was in her glory. 

tum cum regnabat, af the tinte when he reigned. 

¢. Cert6 means certainly; certé (usually), at any rate: as, certd 
scid, / know for a certainty; ego certé, J at least. 

d. Primum means first, “firstly” (jirst in order, or for the first time), 
and implies a series of events or acts. Prim6 means a/ first, as opposed 
to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time: as, — 

hoc primum sentio, ¢2zs I hold in the first place. 

aedés primo ruere rebamur, a¢ first we thought the house was falling, 

In enumerations, primum (or primS) is often followed by deinde, 
secondly, in the next place, or by tum, then, or by both in succession. 
Deinde may be several times repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The 
series is often closed by dénique or postrém6, /astly, finally. Thus,— 

primum dé genere belli, deinde dé -magnitiidine, tum de imperatore 

deligendo (Manil. 6), first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, 
then of the choice of a commander. 

é. Quidem, zudecd, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive 
meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc.: as, — 

hdc quidem videre licet (Lal. 54), THIs szrely one may see. [Emphatic.] 

(s€curitas) specie quidem blanda, sed reapse multis locis repudianda (id. 

47), (tranquillity) in appearance, tis true, attractive, but in reality to 
be rejected for many reasons. [Concessive.] 

Né... quidem means #of even or not... either. The emphatic 
word or words must stand between né and quidem. 

senex né quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 68), an old man has NOT any- 

thing to hope for EVEN. 

sed né Iugurtha quidem quietus erat (Jug. 51), dué Fugurtha was nol guict 

EITHER. , 


il.— PREPOSITIONS. 


152. Prepositions! are regularly used either with the 
Accusative or with the Ablative. 





_ 1 Prepositions are not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or meaning, 
but only specialized in use. Most of them are true case-forms: as, the comparative 
instrumentals contra, Infré, supra, and the accusatives (cf. § 88, ¢) circum, 
coram, cum, circiter, praeter (comp. of prae), propter (comp. of prope). 
Of the remainder, versus is a petrified nominative (participle of vertd); 
adversus is a compound of versus; while the origin of the brief forms ab, 
ad, d6, ex, ob, trans, is obscure and doubtful, 


128 Etymology: Particles. [§§ 152, 153. 


Pte. “4 

a. The following are used with the Accusative : — 
ad, zo. extra, outside. post, after. 
adversus, against. in, into. praeter, beyond. 
adversum, fowards. infra, delow. prope, wear. 
ante, defore. inter, among. _ propter, on account of. 
apud, a7, near. intra, zzside. secundum, ext to. 
circa, around. iuxta, wear. sub, wuder. 
circum, around. ob, oz account of. supra, above. 
circiter, about. penes, tu the power. trans, across. 
cis, citra, thzs side. per, through. tiltra, on the further side. 
contra, against. ene. behind. versus, fowards. 
erga, cowards. nee agit Jinan 

4. The following are ee os the Ablative?:— 
A, Ab, abs, away from, by. in, 72. 
absque, without, but for. prae, 22 comparison with. 
c6ram, zz presence of. pré, zx front of, for. 
cum, with. sine, without, 
dé, from. sub, under. 
é, ex, out of. tenus, «up do, as far as. 


c. The following may be used with either the Accusative or the 
Ablative, but with a difference in meaning : — 
in, zuzto, in. sub, uuder. 
subter, dexeath. super, above. 


In and sub, when followed by the accusative, indicate sotzon to, 
when by the ablative, ves¢ zz, a place: as, — 


venit in aedés, he came into the house; erat in aedibus, he was in the house. 

disciplina in Britannia reperta atque inde in Galliam translata esse existi- 
matur, ¢he system is thought to have been discovered in Great Britain 
and thence brought over to Gaul. 

sub ilice conséderat, he had seatéd himself under an ilex. 

sub leges mittere orbem, 40 sudject the world to laws (to send the world 
under laws). 


153. The uses of the Prepositions are as follows :— 
A, ab, AWAY FROM,? FROM, OFF FROM, with the ablative. 
a. Of place: as, ab urbe profectus est, he set out from the city. 
6. Of time (1) from: as, ab hora tertia ad vesperam, from the third hour tilt 
evening; (2) just after: as, ab ed magistratu, affer [holding] chat 
Office. 
1 For palam, etc., see § 261. 3, ¢. 


2 Ab signifies direction from the object, but often éowards the speaker; com: 
pare G6, down from, and ex, , out Of, 





c. — a... 


Ce. ee 


§ 153.] Prepositions. 129 


Idiomatic uses: a reliquis differunt, shey differ from the others ; ab parvulis, 
from early childhood; prope ab urbe, near (not far from) the city ; 
liberare ab, Zo set free from; occisus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain 
by an enemy; ab hac parte, on this side; ab re eius, to his advantage ; 
a republica, for the interest of the state. 


Ad, TO, TOWARDS, AT, NEAR, with the accusative (cf. in, z7Zo). 


a. Of place: as, ad urbem venit, e came do the city; ad meridiem, fowards 
the south; ad exercitum, wth the army ; ad hostem, toward the enemy ; 
ad urbem, sear the city. 

4. Of time: as, ad nonam horam, ¢// the ninth hour. 

c. With persons: as, ad eum venit, he came to him. 

Idiomatic uses: ad supplicia descendunt, ¢hey resort to punishment; ad haec 
respondit, Zo this he answered; ad tempus, at the [fit] t2me,; adire ad 
rempublicam, ¢o go into public life; ad petendam pacem, /o seek peace ; 
ad latera, on” the flank, ad arma, fo arms; ad hunc modun, 72 this 
way; quem ad modum, sow, as; ad centum, ear a hundred; ad hoc, 
besides ; omnes ad unum, a@// fo a man; ad diem, on the day. 


Ante, IN FRONT OF, BEFORE, with the accusative (cf. post, after). . 


a. Of place: as, ante portam, 7 front of the gate; ante exercitum, 2” advance 
of the army. 

b. Of time: as, ante bellum, defore the war. 

Idiomatic uses: ante urbem captam, Jdefore the city was taken, ante diem 
quintum (a.d.v.) Kal., the fifth day before the Calends (the 3d day be- 
fore the last of the month); ante quadriennium, four years before or 
ago; ante tempus, 400 soon (before the time). 


Apud, AT, BY, AMONG, with the accusative. 

a. Of place (rare and archaic): as, apud forum, af the forum (in the market- 
place). 

4. With reference to persons or communities: as, apud Helvetios, among the 
Helvetians ; apud populum, before the people; apud aliquem, az one’s 
house; apud se, at home or in his senses; apud Ciceronem, zx [the 
works of] Cicero. 


Circum,! circa, circiter, ABOUT, AROUND, with the accusative. 
a. Of place: circum haec loca, hereabout ; circa se habent, they have with them. 
4. Of time or number (circa or circiter, zo¢ circum): as, circa eandem horam, 
about the same hour ; circiter passus mille, about a mile. Especially about, 
in regard to: circa quem pugna est (Quintil.), with regard to whom, etc. 


Contra,” OPPOSITE, AGAINST, with the accusative: as, — 


contra Italiam, over against Italy; contra haec, in answer to this.” 
Often as adverb: as, haec contra, ¢his in reply ; contra autem, but on the other 
hand; quod contra, whereas, on the other hand. 








1 Circum is an accusative form; circ, is instrumental; circiter, accusative 
ofa comparative. For the stem, cf. circus. 
2 Contr is instrumental comparative of cum (con-). 


130 Etymology: Particles. [§ 153. 


Cum, WITH, TOGETHER WITH, with the ablative. 


a. Of place: as, vade mécum, go with me; cum omnibus impedimentis, with 
adi [their] Jaggage. 

6. Of time: as, prima cum lice, ef early dawn (with first light). 

Idiomatic uses: magnO cum dolore, with great sorrow ; communicare aliquid 
cum aliquo, share something with some one; cum malo sud, Zo his own 
hurt; confligere cum hoste, 40 fight with the enemy; esse cum telod, Zo 
go armed; cum silentio, z silence. 


Dé, DOWN FROM, FROM, with the ablative (cf. ab, away from; ex, 


out of). 


a. Of place: as, dé cael6 demissus, sent down from heaven; de navibus 
desilire, to jump down from the ships. 

6. Figuratively, CONCERNING, ABOUT, OF:! as, cOgndscit dé Cl6di caede, he 
dearns of the murder of Clodius ; cOonsilia de bello, plans of war. 

c. Inapartitive sense (compare ex), oz of, of: as, unus de plebe, one of the people. 

Idiomatic uses: multis dé causis, for many reasons; qua de causa, for which 
reason; de improviso, of a sudden; de industria, om purpose; de 
integro, anew; dé tertia vigilia, just at midnight (starting at the third 
watch); dé ménse Decembri navigare, 4o saz/ as early as December, 


- Ex, 6, FROM (the midst, opposed to in), OuT OF, with the ablative 
(cf. ab and dé). 


a. Of place: as, ex omnibus partibus silvae evolaverunt, they flew out from 
all parts of the forest; ex Hispania, [a man] from Spain. 

6. Of time: as, ex eo die quintus, the fifth day from that (four days after); 
ex hoc die, from this day forth. 

Idiomatically or less exactly: ex cOnsulatu, right after his consulship; ex @ius 
sententia, according to his opinion; ex aequo, justly; ex improviso, 
unexpectedly ; ex tua re, fo your advantage; magna ex parte, 7” a great 
degree; ex equo pugnare, 0 fight on horseback; ex usu, expedient ; 
é regione, oposite ; quaerere ex aliquo, Zo ask of some one; ex senatus 
consult6, according to the decree of the senate; ex fuga, iv [their] 
flight (proceeding immediately from it); unus é filiis, one of the sons. 


In, with the accusative or the ablative. 
1. With the accusative, INTO (opjosed to ex). 


a. Of place: as, eds in silvas reiécérunt, they drove them back into the woods. 

6. Of time, TILL, UNTIL: as, in licem, 2/7 daylight. 

Idiomatically or less exactly: in meridiem, éowards the south; amor in 
(erga or adversus) patrem, Jove for his father ; in aram confugit, he 
fied to the altar (on the steps, or merely ¢e); in dies, from day to day ; 
in longitidinem, i /ength; in haec verba iurare, 4o swear to these 
words; hunc in modum, iz ¢his way 3 Oratid in Catilinam, @ speech 
against Catiline; in perpetuum, for ever; in peius, for the worse; 
in diem vivere, 40 live from hand to mouth. 





1 Of originally had the same meaning as 6 (compare of). 


§ 153.| Prepositions. 131 


2. With the ablative, IN, ON, AMONG. \ 


In very various connections: as, in castris, 7 the camp (cf. ad castra, fo, at, or 
near the camp); in mari, on the sea; in urbe esse, fo be in town; in 
tempore, 7 season; in scribendo, while writing; est mihi in animo, 
I have it in mind; in ancoris, a¢ anchor; in hoc homine, iz the case 
of this man; in dubio esse, Zo be in doubt. 


Infra, BELOW, with the accusative. 


a. Of place: as, ad mare infra oppidum, dy the sea below the town; infra 
caelum, under the sky. 

6. Figuratively: as, infra Homerum, /ater than Homer ; infra tres pedeés, Zess 
than three feet; infta elephantos, smaller than elephants ; infra infimos 
omnes, the lowest of the low. 


Inter, BETWEEN (with two accusatives), AMONG: as, — 


inter me et Scipionem, detween myself and Scipio; inter Os et offam, detween 
the cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel); inter hostium tela, 
amid the weapons of the enemy ; inter omnes primus, first of all; inter 
bibendum, while drinking; inter se loquuntur, “hey talk together ; inter 


- nos, detween ourselves. 


Ob, TOWARDS, ON ACCOUNT OF, with the accusative. 


a. Literally: (1) of motion (archaic) : as, ob Romam, éowards Rome (Ennius) ; 
ob viam, 7o the road (preserved as adverb, iz the way of). (2) Of place 
in which, BEFORE, in a few phrases: as, ob oculos, before the eyes. 

6, Figuratively, IN RETURN FOR (mostly archaic, probably a word of account, 
balancing one thing against another): as, ob mulierem, 7” pay for the 
woman, ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the 
like, ON ACCOUNT OF (a similar mercantile idea), FoR: as, ob eam 
causam, for that reason ; quam ob rem (quamobrem), wherefore, why. 


Per, THROUGH, OVER, with the accusative. 


a. Of motion: as, per urbem ire, 40 go through the city; per muros, over the 
walls. 

6, Of time: as, per hiemem, “roughout the winter. 

¢. Figuratively, of persons as means or instruments: as, per hominés iddneds, 
through the instrumentality of suitable persons ; licet per me, you (etc.) 
may for allme. Uence, stat per me, z¢ zs through my instrumentality. 
So, per se, iz and of itself. 

@d. Weakened, in many adverbial expressions: as, per iocum, i jest; per 
speciem, 77 show, ostentatiously. 


Prae, IN FRONT OF, with the ablative. 


a. Literally, of place (in a few connections): as, prae sé portare, fo carry in 
one’s arms; prae sé ferre, to carry before one (hence figuratively), ex- 
hibit, proclaim, ostentatiously make known. 

6. Figuratively, of hindrance, as by an obstacle in front (compare English 
Jor): as, prae gaudio conticuit, he was silent for joy. 


132 Etymology: Particles. [§ 153. 


c. Of comparison: as, prae magnitudine corporum sudrum, 7 comparison with 
their own great size. 


Praeter, ALONG BY, BY, with the accusative. 


1. Literally: as, praeter castra, dy the camp (along by, in front of); praeter 
oculos, before the eyes. 
2. Figuratively, BEYOND, BESIDES, MORE THAN, IN ADDITION TO, EXCEPT: as, 
_ praeter spem, deyond hope; praeter alios, more than others; praeter 
paucos, wth the exception of a few. 


Pr6, IN FRONT OF, with the ablative: as, — 


sedéns pro aede Castoris, sé¢ting in front of the temple of Castor ; pro populo, 
in presence of the people. So pro rostris, oz [the front of] che rostra ; 
pro contione, defore the assembly (in a speech). 
In various idiomatic uses: pro lege, 72 defence of the law; pro vitula, instead 
of a heifer ; pro centum milibus, as good as a [hundred] thousand ; 
_ pro rata parte, zz due proportion; pro hac vice, for this once; pro 
consule, 77 place of consul; pro viribus, considering his strength; pro 
virili parte, to the best of one’s ability. 


Propter, NEAR, BY, with the accusative: as, — 


propter té sedet, he sits next you. Hence, ON ACCOUNT OF (cf. a// along of): 
as, propter metum, “rough fear. 


Secundum,! JUST BEHIND, FOLLOWING, with the accusative. 


1. Literally: as, ite secundum me (Plaut.), go dehind me; secundum litus, 
near the shore; secundum flimen, along the stream (cf. secundo flumine, 
down stream). 

2. Figuratively, ACCORDING TO: as, secundum naturam, according to nature. 


Sub, UNDER, UP TO, with the accusative or the ablative. 


a. Of motion, with the accusative: as, sub montem succedere, 40 come close to 
the hill. 

Idiomatically: sub noctem, fowards night; sub lucem, near daylight; sub 
haec dicta, a¢ (following) these words. 

4. Of rest, with the ablative: as, sub Iove, 72 the open air (under the heaven, 
personified as Jove): sub monte, at the foot of the hill. 

Idiomatically: sub eodem tempore, about the same time (just after it). 


Super,” ABOVE, OVER, with the accusative or ablative: as, — 
vulnus super vulnus, wound upon wound; super Indos, beyond the Hindoos. 
But, — super tali re, about such an affair. (See § 260. c.) 
Supra,’ ON TOP OF, ABOVE, with the accusative: as, — 


supra terram, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively: as, supra hanc 
memoriam, Jefore our remembrance ; supra morem, more than usual; 
supra quod, desides. 





1 Part. of sequor. 2 Comp. of sub, 8 Instrumental of superus, § g1. & 


§§ 153, 154. | Conjunctions. 133 


Trans,! ACROSS, OVER, THROUGH, BY, with the accusative. 

a. Of motion: as, trans mare currunt, they run across the sea; trans flumen 
ferre, fo carry over a river, trans aethera, through the sky; trans caput 
iace, throw over your head. 

b. Of rest: as, trans Rhenum incolunt, hey ive across the Rhine. 

Ultra, BEYOND (on the further side), with the accusative: as, — 

cis Padum ultraque, on this side of the Po and beyond; ultra eum numerum, 
more than that number; ultra fidem, incredible ; ultra modum, im- 
moderate. 

[For Prepositions in Compounds, see § 170.] 


NOTE.— Some adverbs appear as prepositions: as, intus, insuper. 


lil. -CONJUNCTIONS, 


154. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. 
They are of two classes : — 


a. CO-ORDINATE, connecting co-ordinate or similar constructions 
(see § 180. a). These are: — 


1. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or opposition of 
thought as well as of words: as, et, and. 

2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in 
thought: as, sed, dwt. 

3. Causal, introducing a cause or reason: as, nam, for. 

4. Illative, denoting an inference: as, igitur, therefore. 


6. SUBORDINATE, connecting a subordinate or dependent clause 
with that on which it depends (see §180. 6). These are: — 


1. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis: as, si, 7/3 nisi, 
unless. 
2. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition: as, ac 
si, as 7. 
3. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission: as, quaamquam, 
although (lit. however much it may be true that, etc. ). 

4. Temporal: as, postquam, after. 

5. Consecutive, expressing result: as, ut, so that. 

6. Final, expressing purpose: as, ut, 7 order that; né, that not. 

NOTE 1.— Conjunctions, like adverbs, are either petrified cases of nouns, pro- 
nouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases: as, Sed, an old ablative (cf. réd, prGd) ; 
quod, an old accusative; dum, an old accusative (cf. tum, cum); v6r6, an old 
ablative of vVérus; nihilOminus, zone the less; proinde, lit. forward from there. 


NOTE 2,—A phrase used as a conjunction is called a conjunctive phrase: as, 
qué propter, qu6 circa, wherefore. ; 


4 Probably neuter participle, cf, terminus, 





134 Etymology: Particles. [§ 155. 


155. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accu- 
rately distinguished in Latin thanin English. The follow- 
ing list includes the common conjunctions! and conjunc- 
tive phrases :— 


1. Co-ordinate. 


a. COPULATIVE AND DISJUNCTIVE. 

et, -que, atque (ac), avd. 

et. .et; et...-que (atque); -que...et; -que.. -que (poet.), 
both... and. 

etiam, quoque, neque n6n (necn6n), quinetiam, itidem (item), 
also. 

cum...tum; tum...tum, doth... and; not only... but also. 

qua ... qua, on one hand... on the other hand. 

modo ...modo, mow... mow. 

aut ...aut; vel...vel (-ve), either... or. 

sive (seu)...sive, whether... or. 

nec (meque)...mec (neque); meque...mec; nec. . neque 
(rare), weither ... nor. 

et... neque, doth... and not. 

nec... et; nec (neque) ...-que, wether... and. 


6. ADVERSATIVE. 
sed, autem, vérum, vér6, at, atqui, dz. 
tamen, attamen, sed tamen, vérumtamen, dwt yet, nevertheless. 
nihil6minus, zone the less. 
at vér6, but in truth; enimvér6, for in truth. 
céterum, on the other hand, but. 


¢. CAUSAL AND ILLATIVE. 
nam, namque, enim, etenim, for. 
quia, quod, decause. 
quoniam, quippe, cum (quom, quum), quand6, quanddquidem, 
siquidem, utpote, since, inasmuch as. 
propteread (... quod), for this reason (... that). 
quapropter, quaré, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, wherefore, whence. 
erg6, igitur, itaque, ideG, idcirc6, proinde, therefore, accordingly. 
NoTE.— Of these quia, quod, quoniam, quippe, cum, siquidem, often 
introduce subordinate clauses. As all subordinate clauses have been developed 


from clauses once co-ordinate (p. 164), the distinction between co-ordinate conjunc- 
tions and subordinate is often obscure. 





1 Some of these have been included in the classification of adverbs. See also 
list of correlatives, § 106, 


$§ 155, 156.] Conjunctions. 135 


a. CONCESSIVE. 
quidem, fo de sure, it zs true. 


2. Subordinate. 
. é. CONDITIONAL. 
si, zf; sin, but if; nisi (ni), wzless, if mot; quod si, but ¢f. 
modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, #f only, provided. 
dummodo né (dum né, modo n8é), Jrovided only not. 


f. COMPARATIVE. 
ut, uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, ceu, as, “ke as. 
tamquam (tanquam), quasi, utsI, ac si, velut, veluti, velutsI, as z/, 
quam, atque (Ac), as, than. 


g. CONCESSIVE. 
etsI, etiams!, tametsi, tamenetsi, quamquam (quanquam), a/- 
though. 
quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, however much. 
licet (properly a verb), ut, cum (quom, quum), ¢hough, suppose, 


whereas. 
kt. TEMPORAL. 


cum (quom, quum), cum primum, ubi, ut primum, postquam 
(postedquam), when. 

prius ... quam, ante... quam, defore, non ante... quam, of 
«a0 MEH 

quand6, simul atque (simul 4c), simul, as soon as. 

dum, usque dum, dG6nec, quoad, zwiz/. 


2. CONSECUTIVE AND FINAL. 
ut (uti), qué, so that, in order that. 
né, ut né, lest (that... not, in order that not) ; néve (neu), zor. 
quin (after negatives), qu6minus, duit that (so as to prevent). 


156. The following are the principal conjunctions whose 
meaning requires to be noticed : — 


a. Bt, and, simply connects words or clauses; -que combines more 
closely into one connected whole. -que is always enclitic to the word con- 
nected or to the first or second of two or more words connected. Thus, 


cum coniugibus et liberis, w7¢h [their] wives and children. 

ferro ignique, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the 
combined means of devastation. ] 

aqua et igni interdictus, fordidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal 
formula, where they are considered separately.] 


136 Etymology: Particles. [s 156. 


Atque (ac) adds with some emphasis or with some implied re- 
flection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and 
so, and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend 
very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untrans- 
latable: as, — F163 

omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable 

(too, without the slightest distinction). 

usus atque disciplina, practice and theory beside (the more important or less 

expected). 

atque ego credo, and yet I believe (for my part). 


In the second of two connected ideas, avd not is expressed by 
neque (nec): as, — 
neque vero hoc solum dixit, and he not only said this. 


Atque (4c), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words 
of comparison and likeness: as, — 

non secus (aliter) ac si, 2of otherwise than if. 

pro eo ac debui, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought). 

aeque ac tu, as much as you. 

haud minus ac iussi faciunt, they do just as they are ordered. 

simul atque, as soon as. 


6. Sed and the more emphatic vérum or vér6, df, are used to 
introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after 
negatives (ot this... but something else). At introduces with em- 
phasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the others. 

At enim is almost always used to introduce a supposed objection 
which is presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in 
this sense. Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, 
and often has hardly any adversative force perceptible. Atqui, 
however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a 
fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, dut if, and if, now Zf, is 
used to continue an argument. Ast is old or poetic and is equivalent 
to at. 

NOTE.—A concessive is often followed by an adversative either in a co- 
ordinate or a subordinate clause: as, etiamsi quod scribas n6n habébis, 
scribit6 tamen (Cic.), though you have nothing to write, still write all the same, 

c. Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (probably imperative of 
vold) and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this dis- 
tinction is sometimes disregarded. Thus, — 

sed quis ego sum aut quae est in me facultas, Jz who am J or what special 


capacity have I? (Here vel could not be used, because in fact a neg- 
ative is implied and both alternatives are excluded]. _ 


- 


§ 156. | Conjunctions. 137 


quam tenui aut nulla potius valetudine, what feeble health [he had], or 
rather none atall. [Here vel might be used, but would refer only to 
the expression, not to the fact]. 

aut bibat aut abeat, /e¢ him drink or (if he won’t do that, then let him) 
guit. [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses]. 

vita talis fuit vel fortuna vel gloria, Ais Life was such either in respect to 
fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it). 

si propinquos habeant imbecilliores vel animo vel fortuna, ¢f they have re/- 
atives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect, 
for example). 

cum cogniti sunt et aut deorum aut régum filii inventi, sons etther of gods 
or of kings. [Here one case would exclude the other. ] 

implicati vel usu diuturno vel etiam officiis, extangled either by close 
intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might exclude 
the first. } ; 


Sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (zf ether . .. 
or tf), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with two 
names for the same thing: as, — 


sive arridens sive quod ita putaret (De Orat. i. 91), etther laughingly or 
because he really thought so. 


Vel, even, for instance, is often used with no alternative force : as, — 
vel minimus, “he very least. 


d. Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally 
expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a 
less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way; etenim 
(for, you see; for, you know; for, mind you) and its negative neque 
enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof. 

(ea vita) quae est sola vita nominanda. nam dum sumus in his inclusi 
compagibus corporis munere quodam necessitatis et gravi opere per- 
fungimur, est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. Maj. 77). 

harum trium sententiarum nulli prorsus assentior. nec enim illa prima 
vera est, for of course that first one isn’t true. 


é. Erg6, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has 
a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than erg6 and 
is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque, 
therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the 
nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. 

All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought 
broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcirceé, for this reason, on 
this account, is regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative: as, 
quia, quod, si, ut, né, and refers to the special point introduced by 
the correlative. 


» 


138 Etymology: Particles. [§ 156. 


né aegri quidem quia non omnes convaléscunt, idcircé ars niilla medicinae est. 

primum igitur aut negandum est esse deds...aut qui deds esse con- 
cedant eis fatendum est eds aliquid agere idque praeclarum; nihil 
est autem praeclarius mundi administratione, deorum igitur consilid 
administratur. quod si aliter est, aliquid profecto ‘sit necesse est 
melius et maiore vi praeditum quam deus.... non est igitur natira 
deorum praepotens neque excellens, si quidem ea subiecta est ei vel 
necessitati vel naturae qua caelum maria terrae regantur, nihil est autem 
praestantius deo, ab eo igitur mundum necesse est regi. niulli igitur 
est naturae oboediens aut subiectus deus: omnem ergo regit ipse 
naturam. etenim si concédimus intellegentis esse deds, concédimus 
etiam providentis et rerum quidem maximarum. ergo utrum ignorant 
quae rés maxumae sint quoque eae modo tractandae et tuendae an 
vim non habent qua tantas rés sustineant et gerant? (N. D. ii. 76.) 

malum mihi videtur mors. est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. certe. 
ergo et ei quibus evenit iam ut morerentur et ei quibus eventirum est 
miserl. mihi ita videtur. nemo ergo non miser. (Tusc. i. 9.) 

meministis enim cum illius nefarii gladiatoris voces percrebuissent quas, 
etc. — tum igitur (Murena 50). 


Ff. Quia, decause, regularly introduces a fact; quod, either a fact or 
a statement. Quoniam (for quom iam), zwasmuch as, since, when 
now, now that, has reference to motives, excuses or justifications, and 
the like. Quand6, szwce, is mostly archaic or late. 


possunt quia posse videntur, ¢hey can because they think they can.- 

locus est a me quoniam ita Mureéna voluit retractandus (Murena 54), Z 
must review the point, since Murena has so wished. 

mé reprehendis quod idem defendam (as he had not) quod lége piinierim 
(Murena 67), you dlame me because [as you say] J defend ies same 
charge which I have punished by the law. 

reprehendis mé quia défendam (as he had) (Sulla, 50). 

cir igitur pacem n6l6? quia turpis est (Philip. vii. 9), why then do J not 
wish for peace? Because it is disgraceful. 

In the denial of a reason, n6n quG is used as well as n6n quod, 

n6n quia, and n6n quin, but notn6n quoniam. Thus, — 

non quia multis debeo ...sed quia saepe concurrunt aliquorum bene dé 
mé meritorum inter ipsos contentiones (Plancius 78), sot because J am 
indebted to many, but because, etc. 

non quin pari virtute et voluntate alii fuerint, sed tantam causam non 
habuerunt (Philip. vii. 6), otf that there were not others of equal 
courage and good-will, but they had not so much reason. 

- g. Cum (quom), when, is always a relative, and is often correlative 
with tum (see %. 1, below); quand6, when (rarely siuce), is used as 
interrogative, relative and indefinite: as, quand6? hodié, when? fo- 
day; si quando, ¢ ever 


§ 156. ] Conjunctions ; Interjections. 139 


h. 1. Conjunctions, especially those of relative origin, frequently 
have a correlative in another clause, to which they correspond: as, — 


ut sementem feceris, ita metes, as you sow, so shall you reap. 
uti initium, sic finis est, as 7s the beginning, so is the end. 
tum cum Catilinam eiciebam (Catil. iii. 3), a¢ che time when, etc. 


2. Often the same conjunction is repeated in two co-ordinate clauses. 
Examples are : — 


et... et, doth... and. 

modo...modo, zow... now. 

nunc ...nunc, zow... now. 

iam ...iam, wow... now. 

simul . .. simul, a¢ once (this) and also (that). 

qua... qua, doth...and, as well... as, alike (this) and 
(that). 


z. The concessives (etsi, quamvis, etc., a/though) may introduce 
either a fact or a mere supposition, and are often followed by the cor- 
relative tamen, yet, nevertheless; quamquam is regularly used to 
introduce an admitted fact and not a mere supposition. 

Quamquam (and rarely etsi, tametsi), in the sense of though 
(and yet, but, however) are also used to introduce an independent 
statement made to limit or correct the preceding (guamguam corréc- 
tivum): as,— 

ille volt diu vivere, hic diu vixit, quaamquam, 0 di boni, quid est in hominis 

vita diu? (Cat. Maj. 68), the one wishes to live long, the other has 


lived long, though (after all) Good Heavens! what ts there that ts long 
in the life of man? 


k. Autem, enim, and vér6 are postpositive, z.c. they always follow 
one or more words of their clause; so generally igitur and often 
tamen. 


INTERJECTIONS. 


O, én, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment). 
id, évae, Evoe, euhoe (of joy). 

heu, 6heu, vae, a/as (of sorrow). 

heus, eho, ehodum, o (of calling) ; st, hist. 

éia, euge (of Praise). 

pro (of attestation): as, pr6 pudor, shame! 


140 Etymology: Formation of Words. [§ 157 


CuapTer VIII.— Formation of Words. 


Nore.— All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An 
element significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the 
meaning of the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the forma- 
tion either of inflections or of stems, ‘Thus, in fact, words (since roots and stems 
are significant elements, and so words) are first juxtaposed, then brought under 
one accent, and finally felt as one word. This gradual process is seen in sea 
change, sea-nymph, seaside, But as all derivation, properly so-called, appears as a 
combination of uninflected stems, every type of formation in use must date back 
of inflection, Hence words were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from 
verbs, but from stems which were neither, because they were in fact both; for the 
distinction between noun- and verb-stems had not yet been made, 

After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred words 
which seemed the simplest was regarded as the Primitive form, and from this the 
other words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of 
formation were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way ew modes of deri- 
vation arose. Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, new nouns from 
adjectives, new adjectives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns, 

In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became con- 
fused, so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often 
assigned to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to 
nouns, é 

Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of 
use, and do not occur in the literature as we have it. ‘Thus many derivatives sur- 
vive of which the Primitive is lost. 

Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in 
derivation were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent derivatives occur 
for which no proper Primitive ever existed. 


1.—ROOTS AND STEMS. 


157. Roots! are of two kinds :— 
. Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensi- 
ble pheacmdta). 
2. Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direction. 
Stems are divided into (1) Noun- (including Adjective-) 
stems, and (2) Verb-stems. 


NOTE, — Noun- and verb-stems were not originally different (see p. 163), and 
in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded, but in general were 
treated as distinct. 





1 For the distinction between Roots and Stems, see §§ 21, 22. 


$§ 158-~60.] Primary Suffixes. 14t 


158. Words are formed by inflection :— 

1. From roots inflected as stems :— 

a. Without change: as, duc-is (dux), Duc; nec-is (nex) ; is, id. 
So in verbs: as, est, fert, Est (cf. p. 86). 

6. With change of the root-vowel: as, liic-is (lix), LUC; pac-is 
(pax). Sin verbs: is for feis, from e6, ire; fatur from for, fari. 

. NOTE. — In these cases it is impossible to say with certainty whether the form 
ot root in a or in dis the original one. But for convenience the above order is 
adopted. 

c. With reduplication: as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur-mur. So in 
verbs: as, si-stG (root STA). 


2. From derived stems; see § 159. 


il.— SUFFIXES. 


159. Stems are derived from roots or from other stems 
by means of suffixes. ‘These are: — 


1. Primary: added to the root, or (in later times by analogy) to 
verb-stems. The root has either the weaker or the fuller vowel (cf. 
§ 158. a, 3). 

2. Secondary: added to a noun- or adjective-stem. 

Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronom- 
inal roots (§ 157. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin. 

Nore.—— The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes, not being orig- 
inal (see p. 140, head-note), is constantly lost sight of in the development ofa lan- 
guage. Suffixes once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary 
are used as primary. Thus in hosticus (hosti + cus) the suffix -cus, originally 
ka (see § 160. A) primary, as in paucus, has become secondary, and is thus 
regularly used to form derivatives; but in pudicus, apricus, it is treated as 
primary again, because these words were really or apparently connected with verbs, 
So in English -aé/e was borrowed as a primary suffix, but also makes forms like 
clubbable, salable; -some is properly a secondary suffix, as in ¢ozdsome, lonesome, 
but makes also such words as meddlesome, venturesome, 


1. Primary Suffixes. 


160. The words in Latin formed immediately from the 
root by means of Primary suffixes, are few. 


a. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the 
addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective /one-ly-some-ish, 
meaning nothing more than Jone, lonely, or lonesome. 

6. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were 
formed which crowded out even the old types of derivation: thus — 


142 Etymology: Formation of Words. [$ 160. 


A word like méns, mentis, by the suffix 6n- (nom. -6) gave menti6, 
and this being divided into men + ti6, gave rise to a new type of 
abstract nouns in -ti6 (phonetically -8i6): as, légatid, embassy. 

A word like auditor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to 
adjectives like auditGrius, of which the neuter is used to denote the 
place where the action of the verb is performed. Hence torio- (nom. 
-torium), N., becomes a regular suffix (§ 164. 7. 5). 

So in English such a word as mechanically gives a suffix -ally, 
making ¢elegraphically, though there is no such word as ¢elegraphical. 
¢. Examples of primary suffixes are: — 

Vowel suffixes : — 


-_ 
° 


a,! found in nouns and adjectives of & and o-stems, as sonus, lidus, 
vagus, scriba, toga (root TEG). 

i, less common, and in Latin frequently changed, as in riipés, or lost, as in 
scobs (scobis, root SCAB). 

u; disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in sua-vis (for 
tsuadus, cf. 7dvs), ten-uis (root TEN in tend6), and remaining alone 
only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root AK, shar, in 
acer, aciés, wxts), pecti (root PAC, dézd, in paciscor). 


2. Suffixes with a consonant: — 


a. ta (in the form to-) in the regular perfect passive participle, as téctus, 
téctum; sometimes with an active sense, as in potus, pransus; and 
found in a few words not recognized as participles, as puitus (cf. pi- 
rus), altus (ald). 

8. ti in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, 
méns. But in many the i is lost. 

. tu in abstracts (including supines), sometimes. becoming concretes, as 
actus, lictus. 

6. na, forming perfect participles in other languages, and in Latin making 
adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns, as 
magnus (= mactus, root MAG), plénus, regnum. 

e. ni, in nouns of agency and adjectives, as ignis, ségnis, 

¢ nu, rare, as in manus, sinus. 

n. ma with various meanings, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma. 

9. va (commonly uo-) with an active or passive meaning, as in equus, 
arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vacivus (vacuus). 

« ra (or la, a passive participle termination in other languages), ‘usually 
passive, as in ager, integer, pléri-que (= plénus = plétus), sella 
(for sed-la, cf. €5pa). 





1 Observe that it is the stem, not the xominative, that is formed by the suffix, 
although the nominative is here given for convenience of reference. The vowel in 
these suffixes is given as @ to avoid puzzling questions of comparative grammar, 
though it had no doubt assumed the form ©, even in the Parent Speech, 


§§ 160-62.] Significant Endings. 143 


«. ya (forming gerundives in other languages), in adjectives and abstracts, 
including many of the first and fifth declensions, as eximius, audacia, 
Florentia, perniciés. 

a. ka, sometimes primary, as in pauci (cf. madpos), locus (for ablocian 
In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a conso- 
nant-stem: as, apex, cortex, loquax. 

pw. an (in-, 6n-), in nouns of agency and abstracts: as, aspergo, compago 
(-inis), gerd (-dnis). 

v. man (men-: also used in the form men- as a conscious derivative) 
expressing MEANS, often passing into the action itself: as, agmen, 
flimen. 

¢. tar, forming nouns of AGENCY: as, pater (i.e. Arotector), frater 
(i.e. supporter), Srator. 

o. tra, forming nouns of MEANS: as, claustrum, milctrum. 

a. as (sometimes phonetically changed into er-, or-), forming names of 
actions: as, genus, furor. 

p. ant, forming active PARTICIPLES: as, legéns, with some adjectives from 
roots unknown: as, frequéns, recéns. 

The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the Indo- 

European parent speech, and most of them were not felt as living for- 


mations in the Latin. 


2. Significant Endings. 

161. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in 
the form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with 
more or less consciousness of their meaning. They may 
therefore be called Significant Endings. 

They form: 1. Nouns of Agency; 2. Names of Action ; 
3. Adjectives (active or passive). 


NOTE. — There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a 
noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and phere as 
nouns (§ 25. 4, note). 


lll.—DERIVATION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 
1. Nouns of Agency. 


162. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or 
doer of anaction. But they include many words in which 
the idea of agency has entirely faded out, and also many 
words used as adjectives. Their significant endings are: — 


. -tor (sor), M., -trix, F., added to roots or verb-stems to denote 
eas agent or doer of an action. 


144 Etymology: Formation of Words. [§§ 162, 163. 


can6, svg (CAN, supine teantum); cantor, sixger; cantrix, song- 


StVESS. 

vincd (VIC, supine victum), conguer: victor, victrix, conqueror 
(victorious). 

tondesd, shear (TOND as root, sup. t6nsum): t6nsor, ténstrix, 
hair-cutter. 


pets, seek (peti- as stem, sup. petitum): petitor, candidate. 
senator (lost verb tsen6, -are), sezazor. 


By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these may 
be stems of lost verbs (cf. senator above): as, viator, ¢vaveller, from 
via, way (but cf. invid). 

NOTE 1.— The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic shoe as the 
supine ending -tum (-Sum) (p. 121. 3), and is added to the same form of root or 
verb-stem as that ending (see § 125). 

NOTE 2.— The feminine form is always -trix, Masculines in -sor lack the 
feminine, except expulsor (expultrix) and t6nsor (t6nstrix), 

Nore 3.—-tor is an inherited termination (cf. ¢, p. 143). The feminine is a 
further formation in -Ca which has lost its final vowel (cf. § 160, A). 

4. t- (originally ta-, cf. § 160. a), C., added to verb-stems making 
nouns in -es (-itis, -etis, stem -it-, -et-) descriptive of a character: 
as, — 

miles (verb-stem mile-, as in mille, thousand), a soldier (man of 

the crowd). 

teges (verb-stem tege-, cf. teg6, cover), a coverer, a mat. 

comes, -itis (con- and me6, go, cf. trames, sémita), a companion. 


¢. -6 (gen. -Gnis, stem Gn-), M., added to stems conceived as 
verb-stems (but perhaps originally noun-stems) to indicate a person 
employed in some specific art or trade: as, — 
ger6 (GES in ger6é, gerere, carry, but compare -ger in armiger 
(squire), a carrier. 
com-bib6 (BIB as root in bib6, bibere, drink), a pot-companion. 


NOTE, — This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of per- 
sonal characteristics (cf. § 164. g). 
2. Names of Actions. 


163. Names of Actions are confused, through their 
suffixes, with real abstract nouns and nouns denoting 
means and instruments. They are derived (1) apparently 
or really from roots and verb-stems (primary) or (2) from 
noun-stems (secondary). 


§ 163.] Names of Actions. 145 


1. Significant endings giving real or apparent primary 
formations are: — 

a. -or (st. 6r-, earlier 6s-), M., -6s (gen. -is, st. i-, earlier es-), F., -us 
(st. s-, earlier es- or os-), N., added to roots or forms conceived as 
roots: as,— 

times, fear; tim-or, dread. 

sede, sz/; séd-és, seat. 

decet, zt zs becoming; dec-us, grace, beauty. 

tfacins (old form of faci6, do); facin-us, a deed. 

NOTE.— Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots: 
as, facinus above (from a supposed root FACIN). 

4. -i6 (st. iGn-), -tid (st. tidn-), -tiira (st. tiira-), F., -tus (st. tu-), M., 
(phonetically -si6, -siira, -sus), apparently added to roots or verb- 
stems, making verbal abstracts which easily pass into concretes. 

leg6, gather, enroll; \eg-i6, a legion (originally, the annual conscrzption). 

rego, direct; reg-i6, a direction, a region. 

Inser6 (SA), zmplant; insi-tis, grafting. 

vocd, call; v_ca-tid, a calling. 

m6lior, foz/; m6li-tid, a tozling. 

pings (PIG), Jacut; pic-tiira, a painting. 

sentido, fee/; sén-sus (for sent-tus, § II. a. 2), perception. 

fruor, enjoy (for ¢fruguor) ; friic-tus, enjoyment, fruit. 


NOTE 1.—-ti6, -tfira, -tus are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as -tor, 
with the same phonetic change, Hence they are conveniently associated with the 
supine stem (see p. 121). They sometimes form nouns when there is no corre- 
sponding verb in use: as, Sen&tus, sexate (cf. senex); mentiO, mention (cf. 
mé6ns); féttra, ofspring (cf. fétus); litteratira, /erature (cf. litterae) ; 
consulatus, consulship (cf. c6Onsul), 

NOTE 2. — Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf. § 160. y); -i6 is” 
a compound formed by adding 6n- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i) : as, 
dicid (cf. -dicus and dicis) ; -tid is a compound formed by adding On- to stems 
in ti-: as, gradatid (cf. grad&tim) ; -tiira is formed by adding -ra, feminine 
of -rus, to stems in tu-: as, natira from natus; statiira from status (cf. 
figtira, of like meaning, from a simple u-stem, tfigu-8; and m&atirus, Matiita). 


c. -men, -mentum, -m6nium, N., -mG6nia, F., apparently added to 
roots or verb-stems to denote ACTS, Or MEANS and RESULTs of acts. 
AG, root of agi, ead; ag-men, “ine of march. 
regi-men, rule. 
regi-mentum, rz/e. 
So colu-men, Zz//ar ; mi-men, movement; nd-men, name. 
fruor, exjoy; fri-mentum, grain. 
testor, wetness ; testi-m6nium, festimony. 
queror, complain; queri-minia, complaint (but see note). 


regi- (stem seen in reg6, direct) ; ; 


146 Etymology: Formation of Words. [§ 163. 


Also fla-men (M.), a Zréest (from £16, d/ow, in reference to the sacri. 
ficial fire). 

REMARK: -m6nium and -m6nia are also used as secondary, form- 
ing nouns from other nouns and from adjectives: as, sancti-m6nia, 
sanctity (sanctus, oly); matri-mG6nium, marriage (mater, mother). 


NoTEe.—Of these endings, -men is primary (cf. § 160. v); -mentum is a 
further development of -men made by adding to-, and appears for the most part 
later in the language than -men: as, m6men, movement (Lucr.); M6mentum 
(later). So elementum is a development from L-M-N-a, /m-n's (letters of the 
alphabet), changed to elementa along with other nouns in -men, -m6nium 
and -m6nia are compound secondary suffixes formed from mo-, as in the series 
almus, fostering; Alm6n, a river near Rome; alimGnia, support. But the 
last was formed from al6 later, when -m6nia had become established as a sup- 
posed primary suffix. 


d. -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum, N., added to verb-stems 
or roots (rarely to noun-stems), to denote MEANS or INSTRUMENT: as, — 

pasco, feed; pa-bulum, fodder. 

st6, stand; sta-bulum, sZad/. 

tis (gen. tiiris), zvcense; tiri-bulum, a censer. 

vocd, call; voca-bulum, @ name, a word. 

lated, Aide; lati-bulum, Aiding-place. 

veh, carry; vehi-culum, wagon. 

pid, purify; pia-culum, az expiation. 

cern6 (crévi), szft; cri-brum, szeve. 

16, dlow; fla-bra (pl.), d/asts. 

candéla, a candle; candéla-brum, a candlestick. 

ambul6, wa/k; ambula-crum, place for walking. 

sepeli6, dury; sepul-crum, fom). 

simuld, Jrefend; simula-crum, image. 

claud6, shut; claus-trum, a dar. 

ar6, / plough; ara-trum, a plough. 

A few Masculines and Feminines of the same formation occur as 
nouns and adjectives: as, — 

for, speak; fa-bula, fale. 

ride6, /augh; ridi-culus, /aughadle. 

faci6, make; fa-ber, swith. 

late6, Azide; late-bra, hidingfplace. 

ter6, dore; tere-bra, auger. 

mulgeé, milk; miile-tra, mz/k-fazl. 

fird, durn; Aus-ter, South wind. 


NOTE. — These are no doubt compound nominal suffixes, bo- + 10-, co- + lo-, 
bo- + ro-, CO- + ro-, to- + ro-, but the series cannot be distinctly made out, 
They had become fully welded into independent suffixes before the historical period. 


§ 163.] Abstract Nouns. 147 


2. Significant endings entirely secondary forming Ab- 
stract nouns are:— 

é. -ia, -tia (-iés, -tiés), -tas, -tiis, -tiid6, F., added to adjective stems 
and a few to nouns. So -d6 and -g6, F., but associated with verbs, 
and apparently added to verb-stems. Thus :— 


audax, bold; audac-ia, boldness. So fidtic-ia, confidence (tfidix). 

pradéns, wzse; priiden-tia, wzsdom. 

superbus, Zroud; superb-ia, pride. 

tristis, sad; tristi-tia, «adness. 

pauper, Joor; pauper-iés, Joverty. 

ségnis, dazy; ségni-tiés, /aziness. 

bonus, good; boni-tas, goodness. 

Civis cétizen 3 Civi-tas, citizenship. , 

senex, old; senec-tiis, age. 

s6lus, alone; s6li-tiids, solitude. 

dulcis, sweet ; dulc&é-d6, sweetness (probably from a lost stem dulcé-, 

cf. dulcé-sc3). 

cupié, / desire; cupi-dé (as if from stem cupt-; cf. cupT-vi). 

lumbus, ¢he doin; lumba-g6, lumdbago (as if from flumb6, -are). 

plumbum, “ad; plumb4-g6, black lead. 

rubus, dramble (red bush) ; rtibi-g6, rws¢ (redness). 

priri6, ztch; priiri-g6, ching. 

albus, white; albii-g0, a disease of the eyes (whiteness, as if from _ 

talbuS). 

Stems ending in o- or 4- lose these vowels vefore -ia (as superb-ia), 
and change them to i before -tas, -tiis, -tia (as boni-tas, above). 

Consonant-stems often insert -i before -tas: as, loquax (stem 
loquac-), loquaci-tas ; but hones-tas, maies-tas (as if from old ad- 
jectives in -es), fiber-tas, volup-tas. o after i is changed to e: as, 
pius (stem pio-), pie-tas ; socius, socie-tas (see § 11. ¢). 

NoTE, — Of these, -la is inherited as secondary (cf. § 160. «); -tia is formed 
by adding -ia to stems with a t-suffix: as, militia, from miles (st. milit-) ; 
molestia. from molestus; clémentia from clémé6ns; whence by analogy, 
mali-tia, avari-tia. -t&s is inherited, but its component parts, ta- + ti-, are 
found as suffixes in the same sense: as, Senecta from Senex; sémen-tis from 
sémen, -tis is ti- + ti-, cf. servitt-d6. -d6 and -g6 appear only with long 
vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy; but -d6 is do-+6n-: as, cupidus, 
cupid6; gravidus, gravéddé (cf. gravé-sc6); albidus, albédd (cf. 
aib6-sc5); formidus, Zo, formidd (cf. formiduldsus), (Zot fash?) fear; 
-g6 is possibly co- + 6n-; cf. vorax, vorigd, but cf, Cethégus. -tfidd is 
compounded of -A6 with tu-stems, which acquire a long vowel from association 


with verb-stems in u- (cf. volfimen, from volvS3): as, c6nsuét6-d6, valétt- 
46, habitG-d6, solliciti-dG; whence servitidd (cf. servitis, -tfitis). 


od 


148 Etymology: Formation of Words. [§§ 163, 164. 


f. -ium, -tium, added to noun- and perhaps verb-stems, forming 
neuter abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting OFFICES and 
GROUPS: as,— 

hospes (gen. hospit-is), 2 guest; hospit-ium, “osfitality, an inn. 

servus, @ Slave; servi-tium, s/avery, the slave class. 

colléga, a colleague; collég-ium, cofleagueship, a college. 

auspex, @ soothsayer ; auspic-ium, soothsaying, an omen. 

gauded, rejoice; gaud-ium, joy. 

benefacié, denefit ; benefic-ium, a &uduess (but cf. beneficus). 

dé-sider6, miss (from fdé-sidés, out of place, of missing soldiers) ; 

désider-ium, onging. 

effugid, escafe; effug-ium, an escape (cf. profugus). 

ad verbum, [added } ¢o a verb; adverb-ium, az adverb. 

inter lindas, defween moons; interlin-ium, tie of new moon. 

régis fuga, fight of a king; régifug-ium, flight of kings. 

Vowel-stems lose their vowel before -ium, as collég-ium, from 
colléga. 

NoTr. — -ium, neuter of -ius ($ 164. g), -ia (ct. e), isan inherited primary suffix 
(cf. § 160. «), but is used with great freedom as secondary; -tium is formed like 
-tia, by adding -ium to stems with t: as, exit-ium, equit-ium (cf. exitus, 
equités) ; so, by analogy, Calvi-tium, servi-tium (from calvus, servus). 

g. Less commonly -nia, F., -nium, -lium, -cinium, N., added to noun- 
stems, but confused with verb-stems: as, — 

pecitl, cattle; pecii-nia, money (chattels). 

conticéscé, hush; contici-nium, the hush of night 

auged, zucrease; auxi-lium, help. 

pect, cattle; pecii-lium, private property (ct. peciilor, implying a 

noun fpeciilum). 

latré, robber; latré-cinium, robbery (cf. latr6cinor, rod, implying 

an adj. flatr6cinus), 


3. Adjectives. 
164. Derivative adjectives are Vominal (from nouns or 
adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots or verb-stems). 
Their significant endings are :— 


I. NomINAL. 
a. -ulus (-a, -um) (after a vowel -olus), -culus, -ellus, -illus, making 
an important class of adjectives, which are usually appropriated to one 
gender, that of the Primitive, and used as DIMINUTIVE NOUNS: as, — 


§ 164.] Nominal A adjectives. | 149 


rivus, a dvook; riv-ulus, @ streamlet. 

gladius, a@ sword; gladi-olus, a small sword. 

filius, @ son; fili-olus, @ dittle sox. 

filia, 2 daughter 3 fili-ola, a Uittle daughter 

atrium, @ fall; atri-olum, a Little hall. 

hom6, a man; homun-culus, @ dwarf. 

auris, az car; auri-cula, @ “tile ear. 

minus, N., @ gift; minus-culum, a little gift. 

fpuera (cf. puer, a doy); puella (for tpuer-ula), @ girl. 

c6dex, a block 3 cddic-illi, wrzting-cablets. 

miser, wretched; mis-ellus, rather wretched. 

liber, a do0k; lib-ellus, a “ttle book. 

aureus (-a, -um), golden; aure-olus (-a, -um), golden. 

parvus (-a, -um), 4¢//e; parv-olus (later parv-ulus), very small. 

maior (old mai6s), greater ; maius-culus, somewhat larger. 

NOTE 1.— These are all formed by adding -lus (originally -rus, cf. § 160, «) 
to various stems, forming adjectives. The formation is the same as that of -ulus 
in 2@below. But these words became settled as diminuitives, and retained their con- 
nection with nouns. So in English the diminutives whitish, reddish, are of the same 
formation as bookish and snappish, -culus comes from -lus added to adjectives 
in -cus formed from stems in n- and 8-: as, iuven-cus, Aurun-cus (cf, Aurun- 
culéius), pris-cus, whence the Cu becomes a part of the termination, and the 
whole ending is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and &-stems, in accordance 
with its origin. 

NOTE 2.— Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or ponies pis 
as, G6liciolae, Zitile pet; muliercula, a oor (feeble) womanx; homunculus, 
wretched mans 

REMARK: -ci6, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive force, 
but is added to masculines only: as, homun-ci6é, 2 dwarf (from hom6, 
aman). 

b. -adés, M., -As, F., -idés, -Idés, M., -is, -€is, F., -6us, -eus, M., 
added to proper names, forming PATRONYMICS to indicate descent or 
relationship. 

These, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns 
in Latin: as, — 


Tyndareus: Tyndar-idés, Castor or Pollux; Tyndar-is, Helen, 
daughter of Tyndarus. 

Atlas: Atlanti-adés, Mercury; Atlanti-adés (Gr. pl.), the Pleiads. 

Scipi6: Scipi-adés, sow of Scipio. 

Anchisés: Anchisi-adés, veas. 

Théseus: Thés-idés, soz of Theseus. 

Tydeus: Tyd-Idés, Diomedes, son of Tydeus. 

Ofleus: Aiadx Oil-éus, son of Oileus. 


150 Etymology: Formation of Words. [§ 164, 


Thaumas: Thaumanti-as, /ris, daughter of Thaumas. 
Hesperus: Hesper-ides (from Hesper-is, -idis), F. pl., che 
daughters of fHesperus, the Hesperides. 


¢. -anus, -6nus, -Inus; -as, -Ensis, -acus (-Aacus), -icus; -éus 
(generally shortened to -€us), -éius, -icius, forming adjectives with 
the sense of BELONGING TO. 


1. So from common nouns: as, — 


mons (st. monti-), szountain; mont-anus, of the mountains. 
vetus (st. veter-), o/7; veter-anus, veteran. 

ante liicem, Jefore light; anteliic-anus, before daylight. 

eged, lack; eg-Enus, weedy (see note below). 

terra, carth; terr-énus, earthly. 

sérus, /ate; ser-6nus, calm (of evening stillness). 

collis, Az//; coll-inus, of a hill. 

divus, god; div-inus, divine. 

libertus, one’s freedman ; libert-inus, of the class of freedmen. 
vitulus, a calf; vitul-Ina (sc. car6), veal. 

quis, who? ciii-as, of what country ? 

infimus, /owes¢; Infim-as, of the lowest rank. 

forum, a market-place; for-énsis, of a market-place, or the Forum. 
merum, pure wine; mer-Acus, pure. 

civis, a citizen ; Civ-icus, civic, of a citizen. 

fulld, a fuller; full6n-icus, of a fuller. - 

fé€mina, a woman; fémin-eus, of a woman, feminine. 

lac, milk (st. lacti-); lact-eus, wz/ky. 

plébés, ¢he commons; pléb-€ius, of the commons, plebeian. 
pater, father ; patr-icius, patrician. 


2. But especially from proper nouns (names of places, peoples, and 
persons), denoting BELONGING TO or COMING FROM: as, — 


R6ma: R6Om-anus, Loman. 

Sulla: Sull-ani, Sz//a’s veterans. 

Cyzicus: Cyzic-éni, Cyzicenes, people of Cyzicus. 

Liguria: Ligur-inus, of Liguria. 

Arpinum: Arpin-ds, of Ardinum (ci. Samnium: Samnis, gen. 
-Itis, a Samnite). 

Sicilia: Sicili-énsis, Szcz/ax. 

Ilium, 7voy; Tli-acus, 7vajau (a Greek form). 

Plat6: Platén-icus, Platonic. 

Aquila: Aquil-éius, ¢ Roman name; Aquiléia, a town in Italy. 


§ 164.] Nominal Adjectives. 151 


3. Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage 
become nouns. Thus, — 5 

silva, woods; Silv-anus, M., a god of the woods. 

membrum, /7zb; membr-ana, F., skzz. 

Aemilia (géns) ; Aemili-anus, M., zame of Scipio Africanus. 

lanius, butcher; lani-éna, F., a butcher’s stall. 

fAufidius (Aufidus), M.; Aufidi-énus, @ Roman name. 

incola, az inhabitant; inquil-inus, M., a dodger. 

caecus, db/ind; Caec-ina, used as M., a Roman name. 

gallus, a cock; gall-ina, F., a hen. 

rud, fail (no noun existing); ru-ina, F., a fall. 

doctor, teacher; doctr-ina, F., learning. 


NOTE, — Of these terminations, -fnus, -6nus, -inus are compounded from 
-nus added to a stem-vowel: as, arca, arcaéanus; collis, collinus. The long 
vowels come from a confusion with verb-stems, as in plé-nus, fini-tus, tribii-tus, 
assisted by the noun-stem in &-: as, arc&@nus. A few nouns occur of similar 
formation, as from verb-stems in 6- (which were lost in the later language) and in 
i-: as, col6nus (col6, cf. incola), patrénus (cf. patr6, -fre), tribinus 
(cf. tribué, tribus), Porttinus (cf. portus), Vactina (cf. vac6, vacuus), 


d. -Alis, -dris, -élis, -Tlis, -iilis, -nus, PERTAINING TO, of various 
modes of relation or ossession, but not used as Gentile adjectives: as, 

natira, mature; natir-dlis, natural. 

populus, a people; popul-aris, fellow-countryman. 

patruus, wucle; patru-6lis, cousin. 

hostis, au enemy; host-ilis, hosizle. 

currus, chariot; sella cur-ilis, curule chair. 

vér, spring; vér-nus, vernal, 

NOTE. —-nus is inherited (cf. § 160. 5) and used as secondary. The others 
are weakened forms of ra- (§ 160.4) added to various vowel-stems. The long 


vowel comes partly from confusion with verb-stems, cf. Aprilis (aperid), ediilis 
(ed6), and the suffix is afterwards used indiscriminately, as in senilis (Senex). 


é. -ter (-tris), -ester (-estris), -timus, -ernus, -urnus, -ternus 
(-turnus), BELONGING TO, of places, ¢témes, and the like (but some are 
gencral adjectives). 

paliis, a marsh; palis-ter, of the marshes. 

pedes, a footman; pedes-ter, of the foot. 

sex ménsés, szxr months; s6més-tris, semi-annual. 

silva, a wood; silv-ester, silv-estris, woody. 

finis, au end; fini-timus, neighboring, on the borders. 

heri (old hesi), yesterday; hes-ternus, of yesterday. 

dial, ong (in time); diti-turnus, lasting. 

hodié, ¢o-day ; hodi-ernus, of to-day. 

diés, day; di-urnus, daily. 


152 Etymology: Formation of Words. [s 164. 


NoTE. — Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro-, § 160) to stems 
in t- or d- (phonetically s-), Thus pedet-tri- becomes pedestri-, and others 
follow the analogy. -ernus and -urnus are formed by adding -nus to 8-stems: 
as, diur-nus (for ¢dius-nus), and hence, by analogy, hodiernus (hodié). 

f. -datus, -itus, -iitus, PROVIDED WITH, making adjectives with 
participial ending, formed from nouns, but in reference to an imaginary 
verb-stem (cf. the English horned, crested, hooked). 

barba, a beard; barb-atus, bearded. 

auris, az car 3 aur-itus, long-cared. 

versus, a turning; vers-itus, crafty, adrott (full of turns). 

So -tus, added directly to nouns without reference to any verb: as,— 

fiinus, death; fines-tus, deadly. 

honor, donor; hones-tus, honorable. 

favor, favor ; faus-tus (for tfaves-tus), favorable. 

g. -eus, -ius, -Aceus, -Icius, -Aneus (-neus), -ticus, MADE OF or 
BELONGING TO, forming adjectives of very various meanings: as, — 

aurum, gold; aur-eus, golden. 

pater, a father; patr-ius, paternal. 

uxor, @ wife; uxGr-ius, wxorious. 

rosa, a rose; ros-Aaceus, of roses. 

later, a brick; later-icius, of brick. 

praeséns, present; praesent-aneus, operating instantly. 

extra, without; extr-aneus, external. 

sub terra, underground; subterr-dneus, subterranean. 

salix, wi/low; salig-neus, of willow. 

vol6, fy; vola-ticus, winged (volatus, a flight). 

domus, a house; domes-ticus, of the house, domestic. _ 

silva, a wood; silva-ticus, sy/van. 

NoTE.—-ius is originally primitive (§ 160. «); -icius and -Aceus are formed 
by adding -ius and -eus to stems in i-c-, 4-c- (suffix co-, orig. ka-, { 160. \) ; 
-eus corresponds to Greek -e9s, -eos, and has lost a y-sound (cf. ya-, § 160. «). 
-neus is no- + -eus (§ 160. 5); -Aneus is formed by adding -neus to &-stems. 
For -ticus, see § 159. n. 

h. -Srius, -tdrius (-s6rius), BELONGING TO, making many adjectives 
often fixed as nouns (see 2). 3 

6rd6, rank, order; Grdin-arius, regular. 

argentum, sz/ver ; argent-drius, of si/ver or money. 

extra, outside; extr-arius, stranger. 

meritus, earned; meri-torius, Profitable. 

dévorsus, turned aside; Aévor-sGrius, of an inn (cf. 2. 5). 


NoTE.— Here -ius (§ 160. «) is added to shorter forms in -Aris and -or: as, 
pectliarius (from peciliaris), bellatGrius (from bellator), 


§ 164. | Nominal Adjectives. 153 


z. Many fixed forms of the above adjective suffixes make nouns 
more or less regularly used in particular senses: as, — 


1. -drius (regular), Jerson employed about anything: as,— 
argent-arius, s7/versmith, broker (from argentum). 
2. -dria, thing connected with something :— 


arén-ariae, F. pl., savdpits (from aréna, sand). 
Asin-aria, F., name of a play (from asinus, ass). 


3. -drium (regular), place of a thing (with a few of more general 
meaning): as, — 


. aer-drium, n., fveasury (from aes, copper) 
tepid-drium, N., warm bath (from tepidus, warm). 
siid-drium, n., a fowel (cf. siid6, -Are, sweat). 
sal-drium, N., salt money, salary (from sal, salt), 7 
calend-arium, N., a note-book (from calendae, calends). 


4. -tdria (-s6ria): as, — 
Agita-t6ria, F., a play of Plautus, 7ze Carter (from agitator). 
vor-s6ria, F., a Zack (from vorsus, a turn). 


5. -t6rium (-s6rium) (regular), Dlace of action (with a few of more 
general meaning): as, — 


dévor-sdrium, N., az inn (as from dévort6, /urn aside) 
audi-torium, N., a decture-room (as from audio, hear). 
ten-t6rium, N., a ¢ent (as from tend6, stretch). 
téc-torium, N., d/aster (as from teg6, téctus, cover). 
por-t6rium, N., Zo// (cf. port6, carry, and portus, ardor). 


6. -ile, anima/-stall: as,— 


bov-ile, N., cattle-stall (b6s, bbvis, ox, cow). 
ov-ile, sheep-fold (ovis, st. ovi-, sheep). 


7. -al for -ale, thing connected with the primitive: as, — 


capit-al, n., Aeaddress, capital crime (caput, head). 

penetr-dle (esp. in pl.), N., zauer apartment (ct. penetrd). 

Saturn-dlia n. pl. (the regular form for zames of aging! feast 
of Saturn (from Saturnus). 


8. -6tum, N. (cf. -tus, -fitus, see f), Dlace of a thing: as, — 


querc-étum, N., oak grove (from quercus, oak). 
Argil-étum, n., Zhe Clay-pit (from argilla, c/ay). 


154 Etymology: Formation of Words. [§ 164. 


9. -cus (sometimes with inserted i, -icus), -Icus, in any one of the 
enders, with various meanings: as, — 
£ ’ 


vili-cus, M., Vili-ca, F., a steward (stewardess) = villa, farm 
house). 
fabr-ica, F., a workshop (from faber, workman). 
biibul-cus, M., ox-tender (from biib-ulus, dim., cf. b6s, oz). 
cant-icum, N., song (from cantus, act of singing). 
'rubr-ica, F., red faint (from ruber, red). 


10. -eus, -ea, -eum, with various meanings: as, — 

alv-eus, M., a trough (from alvus, ¢he belly). 

capr-ea, F., a roe (from caper, /e-goat). 

flamm-eum, N., a bridal veil (from flamma, flame, from its color). 
11. -ium, confounded with the primary suffix (see § 163. /). 
12. -ter (stem tro-) and -ter (stem tri-), -aster -ester: as, — 


Aus-ter, M., South wind (from tir6, burn). 

eques-ter, M., knight (for fequet-ter, see ¢, note). 

sequ-ester, M., a stake-holder (from derivative of sequor, follow). 
ole-aster, M., wild olive (from olea) (cf. surd-aster, from surdus). 
&. -Ssus, -(0)léns, -(0)lentus, FULL OF, PRONE TO: as, — 
fliictus, wave; fliictu-6sus, dz/lowy. 

forma, Jeauty ; form-6sus, beautiful. 

periculum, Zer7/; pericul-6sus, fu// of danger. 

pestis, Jest; pesti-léns, pesti-lentus, Zeszzlent. 

vinum, wize; vino-lentus, vin-ésus, e7ven to drink. 


II]. VERBAL. 

2, -Ax, -idus, -ulus, -vus (-uus, -ivus, -tivus), PRONE TO, FITTED 
TO, apparently! added to verb-stems, forming adjectives, to express the 
action of a verb as a QUALITY or TENDENCY. -&x, denotes a faulty 
or aggressive tendency; -tivus is oftener Jasszve. Thus, — 

pigns, zo fight; pign-ax, puguacious. 

auded, fo dare; aud-ax, dold. 

cupis, Zo desire; cup-idus, eager. 

bib6, fo drink; bib-ulus, thirsty (as dry earth, etc.). 

proéter6, fo trample; proter-vus, violent, wanton. 

noced, do harm; noc-uus (noc-ivus), hurtful, injurious. 

capi6, fake; cap-tivus, captive; M., a prisoner of war. 

recidé, fall back; recid-ivus, restored. 





1 The forms felt as verbal are, like the nominal forms, derived from noun-stems, 
and the two are constantly confounded, 


§ 164.] Verbal Adjectives. 155 


NOTE. — Of these, -Ax is a reduction of -&cus (stem-vowel &--}+ -cus), become 
independent and used with verb-stems. Similar forms in -6x, -6x, -ix, and -Gx 
are found or i.nplicd in derivatives: as, imbrex, M., a rain-tile (from imber); 
senex, o/d (from seni-s); ferOx, ferce (from ferus); atrOx, savage (from 
ater, d/ack); celOx, F., a yacht (cf. cellO); fé6lix, Lappy, orig. fertile (from f616, 
suck{?]); fidticia, F., confidence (as from +fidtix); cf. also victrix (from 
victor). So mandicus, chewing (from mandS). 

-idus is no doubt denominative, as in herbi-dus, 4erd; tumidus, swollen 
(cf. tumu-lus, 4/7; tumul-tus, uproar); callidus, tough, cunning (cf. callum, 
tough flesh); matici-dus, sdimy (cf.mitcus, s/ime); tabidus, wasting (cf. tabés, 
wasting disease). But later it was used to form adjectives directly from verb-stems. 

-ulus is the same suffix as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Cf. 
aemulus, rivalling (cf. imitor and imag6) ; sédulus, sitting by, attentive (cf. 
domi-seda, home-staying, and S6d6, ca/m) ; pendulus, hanging (cf. ponds, abl., 
in weight ; perpendiculum, a plummet; appendix, ax addition) ; stragulus, 
covering (cf. stragés) ; legulus, a picker (cf. sacri-legus, a picker up of things 
sacred). But they were thoroughly attached to verbs. 

-vus seems originally primary (cf. § 160. 9), but -ivus and -tivus have become 
secondary and are used with nouns:-as, aestivus, of summer (from aestus, 
heat); tempestivus, timely (from tempus) ; cf. domes-ticus (from domus), 


m. -ilis, -bilis, -ius, -tilis, (-silis), expressing PASSIVE QUALITIES, 
but occasionally active: as, — 

frang6 (FRAG), break; frag-ilis, frazi. 

nésc6 (GNO), know; n6-bilis, well known, famous. 

exim6, take out, select; exim-ius, choice, rare (cf. é-greg-ius) 

ag6, drive; ag-ilis, active. 

habed, do/d; hab-ilis, handy. 

ald, nourish; al-tilis, fattened (see note). 


NOTE. — Of these, -ius is primary, but is also used as secondary (cf. § 163. 7). 
-ilis is certainly secondary: as, Similis, /ike (cf. duos, Eng. same); agilis, active 
(cf. prédigus, otparnyds, so agd- + -lis); facilis, easy (cf. bene-ficus) ; 
fragilis, fraz/ (cf. foederi-fragus). -bilis also is probably bo- + -lis (cf. -bus 
in morbus, -bulum, -bundus, -brum, -bris; cf. also -ilis and -tilis); in -tilis 
and -silis, -lis is added to to- (SO-), stem of the perfect participle: as, f6ssilis, 
dug up (from fOssus, dug); volatilis, winged (from volatus, figh?). 

mz. minus, -mnus. These endings are properly Jartiipial (ct. 
Greek -yevos, and am&-mini). They form a few nouns in which the 
participial force is discernible: as, — 

FE, froduce ; f6-mina, woman (the producer). 

ald, xourish; alu-mnus, a foster child, nursling. 

o. -ndus (the same as the gerund-ending) forms a few active or re- 
flexive adjectives: as, — 

- sequor, follow; secu-ndus, second (the following), favorable. 
roté, whirl (from rota, wheel); rotu-ndus, round (whirling?). 





t Compare volvendis ménsibus, ix the revolving months (Virg.). 


156 Etymology: Formation of Words. {§§ 164, 165. 


NOTE.— This suffix is no doubt on-+-dus: as, tgerus (st. gerd-, ct. 
armiger), gerd (st. gerdn-), tgerondus (cf, -bundus and -cundus; and 
turunda, a paste-ball). 

p. -bundus, -cundus, with a Jartécipial meaning, but denoting con- 
tinuance of the act or quality. : 
 iocus, @ zest; iti-cundus, pleasant (cf. iuvd, -Gre). 

vit6, shun; vita-bundus, dodging about. 

trem6, éremdble; treme-bundus, ¢rembling. 

morior, de; mori-bundus, ad the point of death. 

for, speak; fa-cundus, eloguent. 

FE, Produce; f6-cundus, fruitful. 

So ira, auger; Tra-cundus, zrasczble (cf. Ira-scor) 


NOTE,— These must have been originally nominal: as in the series, rubus, 
red bush; rabidus (but no frubicus), red; Rubicon, Red River (cf. MiniG, a 
river of Etruria; Minius, a river of Lusitania); rubicundus (as in averrun- 
cus, homun-culus). So turba, commotion ; tur’ 5, a top; turbidus, roily, 
etc. Cf. apexabé, longabé, gravédé, dulcédé. 


II]. IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES. 


g- The primary suffix Gn- (nom. -6) is used as secondary to form 
nouns denoting POSSESSED OF (originally adjectives), and so expressing 
a character, and often used as Proper names: as, — 

epulae, @ feast; epul-6, a feaster. 

nasus, @ xose; nas-6, with a large nose (also as a proper name). 

-volus (in bene-volus), wishing; vol-Snés (pl.), volunteers. 

fréns, forehead; front-6, big-head (also as a proper name). 

So ciiria, 2 curtia; ciiri-6, head of a cura (also as proper name). 

restis, a rofe; resti-6, a rope-maker. 

¢{vespertilis, of the evening; vespertili-6, a dat. 

vy. Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not 
used in their compound form: as, — 

ad-verb-ium, adverb; ad, ¢o, and verbum, verd, but without the 

intervening fadverbus. 

lati-fund-ium, /arge estate; latus, wide, fundus, estate. 

su-ove-taur-ilia, a sacrijice of a sheep, a swine, and a bull; sis, swene, 

ovis, sheep, taurus, dud, where the primitive would be impossi- 
ble Latin, though such formations are common in Sanskrit. 


IV.—DERIVATION OF VERBS. , 
165. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative. 


a 





1 This suffix is the same as in § 162. 2, but not connected with a verb, 


$$ 165, 166. | Derivation of Verbs. 157 


1. Primitive verbs are those inherited by the Latin from 
the parent speech. 

2. Derivative verbs are those formed in the develop- 
ment of the Latin as a separate language. They are of 
two main classes : — 


a. DENOMINATIVE VERBS, formed from nouns or adjectives. 
6. Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other verbs (see § 167). 


1. Denominative Verbs. 


166. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every 
form of noun- and adjective-stem. 


a. 1. Verbs of the first conjugation! are formed directly from 
a-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning: as, fuga, /ight; fugs, 
put to flight. 


NOTE.— No doubt originally particular forms of stem formed particular con- 
jugations of verbs, but from changes of stem and from various cross-analogies the 
relation between conjugations and stem-forms became entirely confused. Thus 
poena should make ¢ptinare, but it really makes ptinire, in accordance with an 
i-stem, asin imptini-s; servus makes serv4Gre in one sense, Servire in another, 


2. Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from o-stems, 
changing the o- into 4-. These are more commonly transitive. Thus, — 


stimulus, a goad (stem stimulo-) ; stimul6 (-are), zucite. 
aequus, even (stem aequo-) ; aequ6 (-adre), make even. 
hibernus, of the winter (stem hiberno-) ; hibern6, Jass the winter. 
albus, wzte (stem albo-) ; alb6 (-are), w/zten. 

pius, ure (stem pio-) ; pid (-are), expiate. 


3. A few verbs, generally neuter, are formed by analogy from con- 
sonant- and u-stems, adding 4 to the stem: as, — 

vigil, awake, vigil6 (-are), watch. 

exsul, au exile; exsul6 (-dre), de in exile. 

hiemps (stem hiem-), wzzter ; hiem6 (-are), pass the winter. 

aestus, fide, seething; aestud (-are), surge, boil. 

levis (stem levi-), ight; lev6 (-are), “ighten. 


b. A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally intransitive) 
are recognizable as formed from noun-stems, but most are inherited, or 
the primitive noun-stem is lost: as, — 





1A few verbs of the first conjugation are inherited. These are (1) formed 
directly from a root ending in a vowel, as d&re (DA), st&re (STA), n&re (NA); 
(2) formed with -yami (see p. 86), as voc&re ; or (2) uncertain, as am4rea. 


158 E tymology ¢ Formation of Words. [§§ 166, 167. 


albus, white; albed, be white (cf. albd, Are, whtten, under a. 2). 

canus (stem c&no-), hoary; oaned, be hoary. 

tumulus, 42 (implying ¢ tumus, swed/ing); tumed, swell. 

pr6-vidus, foreseeing; prd-vided, foresee. 

But moned, remind; cf. memini, remember. 

alge6, de cold; cf. algidus, cold. 

NOTE. — The second conjugation has undoubtedly been formed partly through 
the agency of stems like those of the fifth declension in 6-, origina'ly 6s-: as, 
tsordés, -is, Zk; sorded, be dirty, cf. Eng. swart; t&bés, -is, wasting ; 
tabe6, waste away (cf. also ptibés, piib6ésc6); rés, thing; reor, reckon, 
But the traces of the original formation of these verbs are almost lost from the 
language. 

c. Some verbs in -u6, -uere are formed from noun-stems in u- 
where probably an i has been lost: as, — 

status, Josidion ; status, set up. 

metus, fear; metus, fear. 

indu (old form of in), zz, on: indub, put on. 

So, by analogy, exu6, dof’, from ex, out of. 

NOTE.— Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in @: as, 
fiu6, fluere; so-lv6, solvere. Some roots have a parasitic m; as, loquor, 
locaitus. 

@. Many verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are formed from i-stems: 
sg 

m6lés (-is), mass ; mOlior, -Iri, Zoz?. 

finis, exd 3 finid, -fre, bound. 

sitis, ¢izrs¢ 3 sitiG, -Ire, thzrst. 

stabilis, stable; stabilié, -fre, establish. 

Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as if i-stems: as, — 
bulla, dzddle; bullié, -ire, doz. 

condus, storekeeper; condiG, -fre, preserve. 

Iinsanus, mad; insanié, -ire, rave. 

gestus, gesture; gesti6, -Ire, show wild longing. 

custés, guardian; cust6di6, -ire, guard. 

NOTE.— Some of this form are of doubtful origin: as, 6rdior, deginz, cf. 6rdsd 


and exOrdium. The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in 46 of the third 
conjugation (p. 100) 


2. Verbs from Other Verbs. 
167. The following classes of verbs regularly derived 
from other verbs have special meanings connected with 
their terminations. 


pl ee ds gets 


§ 167.| Derivation of Verbs. 159 


NOoTE.— These classes are all really denominative in their origin, but had 
become so associated with verbs that new derivatives were often formed directly 
from verbs without the intervention of a noun-stem. 

a. INCEPTIVES or INCHOATIVES add -sc6é to the present stem of 
verbs. They denote the deginning of an action. Of some there is no 
simple verb in existence. Thus,— 


cale6, de warm; calé-sc6, grow warm. 

lab6, totter; laba-sc6, degin to totter. 

sci6, know ; sci-sc6, determine. 

cupis, desire; con-cupi-sc6, conceive a desire for. 

ald, feed; ale-sc6, grow. 

So ira-scor, get angry ; cf. ira-tus. 

iuvene-sco, erow young; cf. iuvenis, young man.- 

mite-sc6, grow mild; cf. mitis, md. 

vespera-scit, z¢ zs getting late; cf. vesper, evening. 

NOTE.—Inceptives properly have only the present stem, but many use the 
perfect and supine systems of simple verbs: as, calésc6, calui; proficiscor, 
profectus, 

6. INTENSIVES or ITERATIVES end in -t6 or -itG (rarely -s6), and 
denote a forcible or repeated action: as, — 


iaci6, throw; iac-t6, hurl. 
dic, say; dict-itd, keep on saying. 
quatié, shake; quas-s6, shatter. 


They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative, 
derived from the participle in -tus (stem to-). 

NOTE,— But they were originally denominatives from a noun of agency in -ta, © 
like nauta, sailor, Hence some are formed from a stem different from the supine: 
as, ag6, agit6d (not &ctS); so, dictitd, not tdictatd, from dicté. 

c. Another form of Intensives— sometimes called Meditatives, or 
verbs of Jractice —ends in -essG (rarely -iss6). These denote a cer- 
tain energy or eagerness of action: as,— 

capi6, ‘ake; cap-ess6, Jay hold on. 

facio, do; fac-ess6, do (with energy). 

pets, seek; pet-iss6, seek (eagerly). 

_ These are of the third conjugation, usually having tne perfect and 
supine of the fourth: as, — 


lacess6, lacessére, lacessivi, lacessitum, Zrovoke. 


@. DIMINUTIVEs (derived from real or supposed diminutive. nouns) 
end in -ill6, and denote a feeble or Petty action: as, ~ 


160 Etymology: Formation of Words. |§§ 167, 168, 


cavilla, vaillery; cav-illor, zes¢. 

canto, sing; cant-ill6, chirp or warble. 

¢. Desideratives end in -turié (-surid), and express longing or wish- 
ing. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only three are in common 
use : — 

em6, duy; emp-turi6, want to buy. 

ed6, cat; é-suri6, be hungry. 

parid, dving forth; par-turi6, de in labor. 
Others are used by the dramatists. 


NOTE. — Desideratives are derived from some noun of agency: as, empturiG, 
from emptor, duyer. Vis6, vo zo see, is an inherited desiderative of a different 
formation, 


3. Compound Words. 


A Compound Word is one whose stem is made up of 
two or more simple stems. 


Only noun-stems can be thus compounded. A preposition, how- 
ever, often becomes attached to a verb. 


168. New stems are formed by composition as follows :1 


a. The second part is simply added to the first: as, — 


su-ove-taurilia (siis, ovis, taurus), the sacrifice of a hog, sheep, 
and bull (cf. § 164. 7). 
septen-decim (septem, decem), seventeen. 


6. The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb 
(Determinative Compounds): as, — 
lati-fundium (latus, fundus), a large landed estate. 


c. The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal 
force (Objective Compounds): as, — 





1 In these compounds only the second part receives inflection. This is most 
commonly the proper inflection of the last stem; but, as this kind of composition 
is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection 
of its own (as, cornicen, -cinis; lucifer, -feri; iidex, -dicis), from stems 
not occurring in Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form 
of i-stems: as, animus, exanimis; nOdrma, abn6rmis (see note, p. 30). In 
composition stems regularly have their uninflected form: as, igni-spicium, 
divining by fire. But O- and &-stems weaken the final vowel of the stem to i-, as in 
ali-pés (from Ala, st. 214-); and i- is so common a termination of compounded 
stems, that it is often added to stems which do not properly have it: as, foederi- 
fragus (for tfoeder-fragus: foedus, jfragus), treatly-breaking. 


§§ 168-70.] Compound Words. 161 


agri-cola (ager, fcola akin to cold), a farmer. 
armi-ger (arma, fger akin to gerd), armor-bearer. 
corni-cen (cornfi, fcen akin to cand), Lorn-blower. 
carni-fex (car6, ffex akin to facid), executioner. 


@. Compounds of the above kinds, in which the last word is a noun, 
acquire the signification of adjectives, meaning Jossessed of the quality 
denoted (Possesstve Compounds): as, — 

&li-pés (ala, pés), wing-footed. 

magn-animus (magnus, animus), great-souled. 

con-cors (con-, cor), harmonious. 

an-ceps (amb-, caput), double (having a head at both ends). 


NOoTE.— Many compounds of the above classes appear only in the form of some 
further derivative, the proper compound being impossible in Latin (cf. § 164. 7). 


169. In many apparent compounds, complete words — 
not stems — have grown together in speech. 


These are not strictly compcunds in the etymological sense. They 
are called Syntactic Compounds. Examples are: — 


a. Compounds of facid, factd, with an actual or formerly existing 
noun-stem confounded with a verbal stem in e-. These are CAUSATIVE 
in force: as, cénsué-facid, habituate (cf. cbnsué-se6, become ace 
customed); cale-facid, cale-facté, fo heat (cf. calé-scé, grow warm). 

6. An adverb or noun combined with a verb: as, bene-dicd (bene 
dicS), fo bless; sat-agé (satis agd), ¢o be busy enough. 

c. Many apparent compounds of stems: as, fidé-iubed (fide! 
iubed), to give surety; man-suétus (manuf suétus), fame; Iippiter 
(tIiis-pater); Marci-por (Marci puer), slave of Marcus. 

d. A few phrases forced into the ordinary inflections of nouns: as, — 


pré-c6nsul, Zroconsul (for prdé c6nsule, zustead of a consul). 

trium-vir, érzumvir (singular from trium virdrum). 

septen-trid, ‘ie Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem 
tridnés, Zhe Seven Oxen). 


170. Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefix- 
ing a Particle to some other part of speech :— 


a. Prepositions are prefixed to Verbs or Adjectives. In these com- 
pounds the prepositions retain their original adverbial sense: } as, — 





1 The prepositions sometimes, however, have their ordinary force as prepositions, 
especially ad, in, circum, trans, and govern the case of a noun: as, transire 
flimen, /c cross u river (see § 239. 4. Rem.). 


162 Etymolegy: Formation of Words. [§ 170 


A, ab, AWAY: au-ferre (ab-ferd), fo take away. 

ad, TO, TOWARDS: af-ferre (ad-ferd), ¢o bring. 

ante, BEFORE: ante-ferre, Zo prefer ; ante-cellere, fo exe. 

circum, AROUND: Circum-mintre, 40 fortify completely. 

com-, con- (cum), TOGETHER Or FORCIBLY: c6n-ferre, fo dring 

together ; col-locare, to set firm. 

dé, DOWN, UTTERLY: Gé-spicere, despise; GEstraere, destroy. 

6, ex, OUT: ef-ferre (ec-ferd), to carry forth, uplift. 

in (with verbs), IN, ON, AGAINST: In-ferre, ¢o dear against. 

inter, BETWEEN, TO PIECES: inter-rumpere, fo zuterrupt. 

ob, TOWARDS, TO MEET: of-ferre, fo offer ; ob-venire, to meet. 

sub, UNDER: sub-struere, to duzld beneath. 

super, UPON, OVER AND ABOVE: super-fluere, 40 overflow; su- 

perstes, @ survivor. 

NOTE.— In these compounds short @ of the root is weakened to i before one 
consonant, to @ before two: as, facid, conficio, cénfectus; iacié, Sicid, 
éiectus, But long @ is retained: as, peractus. 

b. Verbs are also compounded with the following inseparable parti- 
cles, which do not appear as prepositions in Latin: — 


amb- (am-, an-), AROUND: amb-tire, fo go about (cf. dudi, about). 

dis-, di-, ASUNDER, APART: dis-cédere, fo depart (cf. dud, ¢wo). 

por-, FORWARD: por-tendere, to hold forth, predict (cf. porré, 
forth). 

red-, re-, BACK, AGAIN: red-ire, ¢o return; re-clidere, fo open 
(from claud6, shut); re-ficere, to repair (make-again). 

s6d-, sé-, APART: s6-cern6, ¢o separate (cf. sed, but). | 


e. An Adjective is sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix. 
Of these, per (less commonly prae), very; sub, somewhat; in-, not, 
are regular, and may be prefixed to almost any adjective: as, — 


per-magnus, very large. prae-longus, very long. 

sub-riisticus, rather clownish. {n-finitus, doundless. 

NOoTE.— Per and sub, in these senses, are also prefixed to verbs: as, per- 
terred, terrify; sub-rided, smile. In ignOsco, in- appears to be the negative 
prefix. 

d. Many Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like the 
verbs to which they correspond. Thus, — 

per-fuga, deserter; cf. per-fugis. 

tradux, vine-branch ; cf. trans-dicd. 


PART SECOND.—USE OF WORDS 
(SYNTAX). 


INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 


THE study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of language, 
and deals with language as fully developed. The terms of Syntax correspond 
accordingly to the logical habits of thought that have grown up at such a period, 
‘and have therefore a logical as well as a simply grammatical meaning. But Syntax 
as thus developed is not essential to language. A form of words—like 6 puerum 
pulcrum! oh/ beautiful boy—may express a thought, and in some languages 
might even be a sentence; while it does not logically declare anything, and does 
not, strictly speaking, make what we call a sentence at all. 

At a very early period of spoken language, Roots were no doubt significant 
in themselves, and constituted the whole of language,—just as to an infant the 
name of some familiar object will stand for all it can say about it. Ata somewhat 
later stage, two simple roots put side by side! made a rudimentary form of propo- 
sition: as a child might say fire bright; horse run, With this begins the first form 
of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate; but as yet there is no dis- 
tinction between noun and verb either in form or function, Roots were presently 
specialized, or modified in meaning, by the addition of other roots either pronom- 
inal or verbal, and Stems were formed; but the same stem could still be either 
nominal or verbal. In this period composition is the only form of syntax. Still 
later —by combination chiefly of different pronominal elements with verb-stems 
and with noun-stems— Inflections were developed to express Zerson, tense, case, 
and other grammatical relations,2 and we have true parts of speech, 

Not until language reached this last stage was there any limit to the association 
of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined. 
But gradually, by custom, particular forms came to be limited to special uses, or 
were produced to serve those uses; and rules were established for combining words 
in what we now call Sentences. These rules are in part general laws or forms ot 
thought (Logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar); and in 
part are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language ~ 
(Particular Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language. 





1 In most languages there still remain traces of the wzorganized forms of expres- 
sion; as, for example, the nominative or accusative in Exclamations (§ 240. d@), and 
the omission of the Copula (§ 206.¢). These are sometimes wrongly regarded 
as cases of Ellipsis. Compare also the use of Interjections generally. 

2 Sometimes called accidents : hence the “accidence” of the language. Com- 
pare pp. 19, note 1; 78, note 1; 119-21; § 118. note, 


164 Syntax: Introductory Note. 


In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively 
accustomed, the unit of expression is the SENTENCE}; that is, the completed state- 
ment, with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally every sentence is simple. 
But two simple sentences may be used together, without the subordination of either, 
to express a more complex form of thought than can be denoted by one alone. 
This is Jarataxis (arrangement side by side). In time two sentences, thus habitu- 
ally used in connection, come to be regularly associated with each other, in certain 
relations, as parts of one logical idea, and the one is felt to defend upon the other, 
This is syzéaxis (arrangement together), In this way, through various courses of 
development, which correspond to the growth of our habitual forms of thought, 
there are produced various forms of complex sentences. ‘Thus timed né id 
accidat was originally two simple sentences: / fear. Let that not happen! and 
these, becoming attached, formed the complex sentence: / fear (lest) ¢hat may 
happen, ‘The results of these processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax as 
shown in the annexed Outline, 


I, A SENTENCE may be either Simple or Compound: viz., 
| Containing a single statement (Subject and 
Predicate) (§ 180). 
a, Containing two or more Co-ordinate Clauses 
(§ 180. a). 
4. Modified by Subordinate Clauses (complex) 
(§ 180. 3). 
II. The Essential Parts of the Sentence are — 
1. The SUBJECT: consist- { a, Noun or its equivalent (§ 174. 1). 
ing of é. Pronoun contained in verb-ending (§ 174. 2). 


1. SIMPLE: 


2. COMPOUND: 


a. Neuter (intransitive) Verb (§ 175. a). 
2. The PREDICATE: con- } 4, Copula with Predicate Noun or Adjective (§ 
sisting of 172. note). 
¢. Verb with Object (§§ 175. 4, 177). 
III. The Subject and Predicate may be MODIFIED as follows : — 
{ a. Noun in Apposition (§ 184). 
4, Adjective or Participle (§ 186). 
c. Noun in Oblique Case (§ 178. a, 4). 
d. Preposition with its case (§ 260). 
é. Relative Clause (§ 180. c). 
a. Adverb or Adverbial Phrase (§§ 179, 207). 
2. The VERB ( predicate) by | 4, Predicate Adjective (§ 191). 
c. Subordinate Clause (§ 180. 4). 
a. Rules of AGREEMENT (¢he Four Concords) (§ 182). 
6. Rules of GOVERNMENT (Construction of Cases) (§ 213 ff.). 


1. The NOUN (Sudject or 
Object) by 


IV. Hence: | 





1 The meaning of Sentence is “'Thought” (sententia from sentire). The — 
grammatical form of the sentence is the form in which the thought is expressed. 


§§ 171-73. ] Subject and Predicate. 165 


CuHaptTer I.— 7he Sentence. 
1. Definitions. 


171. A SENTENCE is a form of words which contains a 
Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command. 

a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a DECLARATIVE © 
SENTENCE: as, equus currit, the horse runs. 

4. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an INTERROGATIVE 
SENTENCE: as, equusne currit? does the horse run? 

c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an ExcLAMA- 
TORY SENTENCE: as, quam celeriter currit equus! how fast the 
horse runs ! 

ad. A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an 
Entreaty is called an IMPERATIVE SENTENCE: as, Currat equus, Ze the 
horse run; i, curre per Alpés, go, run across the Alps. 


172. Every sentence consists of a Subject and a 
Predicate. : : 

The Susject of a sentence is the person or thing 
spoken of. 

The PREDICATE is that which is said of the Subject. 

Thus in equus currit, the horse runs, equus is the subject, and 
currit the predicate. 


NOTE,— Every complete sentence must contain a subject ({ 174) and a verb, 
The verb itself is usually the predicate, but when any form of Sum is used simply 
to connect a noun or adjective as an attribute with the subject, such word is called 
the predicate noun or adjective, and sum is known as the copula (or connective) 
(§ 176. a). Thus in Caesar cénsul erat, Cesar was consul, Caesar is the 
subject, cCOnsul the predicate noun, and erat the copula, 

But sum in the sense of exist makes a complete predicate alone, It is then 
called the sudstantive verb: as, sunt Viri fortés, there are (exist) drave men, 


2. Subject and Predicate. 
173. 1. The Subject of a Finite verb is in the Nomr- 
NATIVE CASE: as, — 
‘equus currit, che horse runs. regina sedet, ¢he queen sits. 
2. The Subject of an Infinitive is in the AccUSATIVE 


(see § 240. f). 


Nore.— A finite verb is a verb in the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative, 
These are called finite moods to distinguish them from the Infinitive. 


166 Syntax: The Sentence. [s§ 174-76. 


174. 1. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or 
some word or phrase used as a Noun: as, — 


humanum est errare, Zo err ts human. 
quaeritur num mors malum sit, he guestion is whether death ts an evid. 
venit, incertum est unde, he came, where from is uncertain. 


2. But in Latin the subject may be implied in the ter. 
mination of the verb (see § 206. a, 4): as, — 


sedé-mus, we siz. curri-tis, you run. ingui-t, says he. 


175. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive. 


a. An Intransitive (or Neuter) verb contains in itself an entire 
statement: as, — 

cado, J fad/ (am falling). 

sol lucet, the sun is shining. 

sunt viri fortes, ‘here are brave men. 

6. A Transitive (or Active) verb has or requires a Direct Object to 
complete its sense (see § 177): as, — 


fratrem cecidit, he slew his brother. 


NOTE 1.— Among transitive verbs FACTITATIVE VERBS are sometimes dis- 
tinguished as a separate class, These state an act which produces the thing expressed 
by the word which completes their sense. Thus mé6énsam fécit, ke made a table 
(which was not in existence before), is distinguished from mMé6énsam percussit, 
he struck a table (which already existed). : 

NOTE 2.—A transitive verb may often be used adsolutely without any object ex- 
pressed: as, arat, Ze is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive 
because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding,— quid, wat? agrum 
suum, dis land, 


3. Predicate Noun. 


176. An intransitive verb is often followed by a noun or 
adjective to describe or define the subject. This is called 
a Predicate Noun or Adjective: as, — 


mortuus cecidit, he fed? dead. 

Quintus sedet itidex, Quintus sits as judge. 

Caesar victor incedit, Cesar advances victorious (a victor). 

a. The copula sum especially is used with a predicate noun or adjec- 
tive (§ 172. note). So also verbs signifying Zo become, to be made, to 
be named, to appear, whence these are called COPULATIVE (2.e. 
coupling) verbs. 


NoTE.—A noun in agreement with some part of the predicate is sometimes a 
Predicate Noun (see § 185. ¢}. 


§§ 176,177.] . Object. Si. 167 


4. A Predicate noun or adjective after the copula sum or a copulative 
verb is in the same case as the subject (see § 185. a). 

Roma est patria nostra, Rome is our country. 

stellae liicidae erant, the stars were bright (cf. stellae lucebant). 

consul creatus est, he was elected consul. 

mors finis esse vidéetur, death seems to be the end. 

dicit nOn omnés bonos esse beats, he says that not all good men are happy. 


4. Object. 


177. The person or thing immediately affected by the 
action of a verb is called the Direct OBjEcT. __ 

A person or thing indirectly affected is ealled the In- 
DIRECT OBJECT. : 

Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object; but an 
Indirect Object may be used with both transitive and in- 
transitive verbs (§§ 225, 226). Thus:— 


pater vocat filium (direct object), the father calls his son. 

mihi (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit, he showed me a 2 Bie 

mihi (ind. obj.) placet, 2¢ is pleasing to me. 

NOTE. — The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not fixed, 
but most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually in- 
transitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (§ 237. 4). 

a. When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the Passive 
voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put in the nom- 
inative case: as, — 


Active: pater filium vocat, the father calls this} SOM. 

Passive: filius a patre vocatur, the son is called by his father. 

Active: lanam et stellas vidémus, we see the moon and the stars. 

Passive: lana et stellae videntur, she moon and stars are seen (appear). 

4. With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used 
where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the Objective. 
Thus ;— 

hominem video, J see the man (ACCUSATIVE). 

homini servio, J serve the man (DATIVE, see § 227). 

hominis misereor, / pity the man (GENITIVE, see § 221. @). 

homine amico utor, / ¢reat the man as a friend (ABLATIVE, see § 249). 

c. Many verbs transitive in Latin are translated in English by an 
intransitive verb with a preposition: as, — 

petit aprum, he aims at the boar. 


laudem affectat, he strives after praise. 
curat valetudinem, he takes care of his health, 


168 Syntax: The Sentence. [ss 177-80. 


NOTE. — One or more words, essential to the grammatical completeness of a 
sentence, but clear enough to the mind of a hearer, are often omitted. ‘This omis- 
sion is called ELLIPSIS, and the sentence is called an ELLIPTICAL SENTENCE: 
as, Best, he is here; Quis? (sc. adest), who? miles (sc. adest), the soldier 


5. Modification. 


178. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a 
single word, or by a group of words (a Phrase or a Clause, 


see §§ 179, 180). 
The modifying word or group of words may itself be 
modified in the same way. 


a. A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an 
appositive (§ 184), or the oblique case of a noun. Thus in the sentence 
vir fortis patienter fert, a brave man bears patiently, the adjective 
fortis, brave, modifies the subject vir, wan, and the adverb patienter, 
patiently, modifies the predicate fert, dears. 

6. The modifying word is in some cases said to LIMIT the word to 
which it belongs. Thus in the sentence pueri patrem vided, / see 
the boy's father, the genitive pueri limits patrem (by excluding any 
other father). 


179. A PHRASE is a group of words, without subject or 
predicate of its own, which may be used as an Adjective 
or an Adverb. 

Thus in the sentence vir fuit summ4 n6bilitate, he was a man of 
the highest nobility, the words summa n6bilitate, of the highest 
nobility, are used for the adjective n6bilis, nodle (or ndbilissimus, 
very noble), and are called an ADJECTIVE PHRASE. In the sentence 
magna celeritate vénit, he came with great speed, the words magna 
celeritate, with great speed, are used for the adverb celeriter, 
quickly (or celerrimé, very guickly), and are called an ADVERBIAL 
PHRASE. 


180. Sentences are either Simple or Compound. 

A sentence containing a single statement is called a 
SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

A sentence containing more than one statement is called 
a CoMPoUND SENTENCE, and each single statement in it is 
called a CLAUSE. 


Re 


§ 180.] | Modification. 169 


a. If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are said 
to be CO-ORDINATE. They are usually connected by a Co-ordinate 
Conjunction (§ 154.@); but this is sometimes omitted (§ 208.4). Thus: 

divide et impera, divide and conquer, But, — 

veni, vidi, vici, / came, [ saw, [ conquered, 

é. If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying 
clause is said to be SUBORDINATE, and the clause modified is called the 
MAIN CLAUSE. 

This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either a 
Subordinate Conjunction or a Relative (§ 154. 6): as, — 

Oderint dum metuant, det them hate so long as they fear. 

servum misit quem sécum habebat, he sent the slave whom he had with him. 

A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses 1s sometimes 
called COMPLEX. 


NoTE.—A subordinate clause may itself be modified by another subordinate 
clause, 


¢. A clause introduced by a Relative pronoun or adverb is called 
a RELATIVE CLAUSE. 
A clause introduced by an adverb of time is called a TEMPORAL 
CLausE. Thus:— 
dum tacent clamant, while they are silent they cry aloud. 
hominés aegri morbo gravi cum iactantur aestii febrique, si aquam gelidam 
biberint primo relevari videntur, men suffering with a severe sickness, 
when they are tossing with the heat of fever, tf they drink cold water, 
seem at first to,be relieved, 
d. A clause containing a Condition, introduced by st, #7, or some 
equivalent, is called a CONDITIONAL CLAUSE. A sentence containing 
a conditional clause is called a CONDITIONAL SENTENCE. 


Thus, si aquam gelidam biberint, prim6 relevari videntur (cf. ¢ 
above) is a Conditional Sentence, and si... biberint is a Conditional Clause, 


e. A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a FINAL 
CLAUSE, 

edo ut vivam, / eaé ¢o dive (that I may live). 

misit légatos qui dicerent, e sent ambassadors to say (who should say). 

A clause expressing the Result of an action is called a CONSECUTIVE 
CLAUSE.? 


tam longé aberam ut non viderem, / was too far away to see (so far away 
that I didn’t see). 





1 Observe that the classes defined in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a 
single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is 
usually subordinate, and may be at the same time conditional; and subordinate 
clauses may be co-ordinate with each other. 


170 Syntax: The Sentence. [§§ 180-84, 


f. Sentences or clauses are regularly connected by means of Con- 
JUNCTIONS; but frequently in Latin— more rarely in English — inde- 
pendent sentences are connected’ by Relative Pronouns or Adverbs. 
In this case, the relative is often best translated in English by a con. 
junction with a demonstrative (cf. §§ 201. ¢, 336. d. Rem.): as, — 


quod cum vénisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come). 
quae cum ita sint, and since these things are so. 


AGREEMENT, 


181. A word is said to agree with another when it 
is required by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, 
Case, or Person. 


182. The following are the general forms of Agreement, 
sometimes called the Four Concords :— 


1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate (§§ 184, 


185). 
2. The agreement of the ADJECTIVE with its Noun (§ 186). . 
3. The agreement of the RELATIVE with its Antecedent (§ 198). 
4. The agreement of the VERB with its Subject (§ 204). 


a. A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word 
with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word cwplied 
in that word. This use is called SyNESIS, or cOmstrictid ad sénsum 
(construction according to sense). 


!.—NOUNS, 


183. A noun used to describe another, and denoting 
the same person or thing, agrees with it in CasE: as, — 


Servius réx, Servius the king. 
ad urbem Athénas, éo the city [of] Athens. 
Cicero consul creatur, Cicero is chosen consul. 


The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (§ 184) or a Predi- 
cate noun (§ 185). ; 
1. Apposition. 
184. The descriptive noun, when in the same part of 
the sentence with the noun described, is called an APposlI- 
TIVE, and is said to be in APPOSITION: as, -— 


§§ 184, 185.] Agreement of Nouns. 17! 


externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, iungébat animés (Liv. ii. 39), 
fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united their hearts. 
[Here the descriptive noun belongs to the szdject.] 

quattuor hic primum Omen equos vidi (Ain. iii. 537), 7 saw here four 
horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the predicate.] 

litteras Graecas senex didici (C. M. 26), J earned Greek when an old man. 
[Here senex, though in apposition, really states something further : 
viz., the time, condition, etc., of the act (Predicate Apposition).]| 

a. Words expressing farts may be in apposition with a word includ- 
ing the parts, or vice versa: as, — 

Gnaeus et Publius Scipiones, Cuetus and Publius, the Scipios. 

6. An appositive generally agrees in GENDER and NUMBER when it 
can: as,— | 

sequuntur nattram, optimam ducem (Leel. 19), chey follow nature, the best 
guide. 

omnium doctrinarum inventricés Athenas (De Or. i. 13), Athens, discoverer 
of all learning. 

NOTE.— But such agreement is often impossible: as,— 

olim truncus eram ficulnus inutile lignum, J once was a fig-tree trunk, a 
useless dog (Hor. Sat. i, 8. 1). 

c. A common noun in apposition with a Locative (§ 258. ¢) is put 

in the Ablative, with or without the preposition in: as, — 

Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 4), a¢ Antioch, once a famous city. 

Albae constitérunt in urbe munita (Phil. iv. 6), they halted at Alba, a forti- 
fied town, 

d. A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may 
take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and 
case with an implied noun or pronoun (§ 197. é): as,— 

in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all. 

ex Anniana Milonis domo (Att. iv. 3) [= ex Anni Milonis domo], oz? of 
Annius Milo’s house. 

é. A genitive is sometimes used instead of an appositive (see § 

214. f). So also a dative in certain constructions (see § 231. 4). 


2. Predicate Agreement. 


The Predicate noun may agree (1) with the subject, being connected 
with it by the copula or a copulative verb (§ 176. a), or (2) with the 
‘ direct object of a verb. 


185. A descriptive noun used to form a predicate is 
called a PrRepicaTeE NoMINATIVE (or other case, according 
to the construction). 


172 Syntax: The Sentence. [S$ 185, 186. 


a. The case of the predicate after the copula and copulative verbs is 
the same as that of the subject (§ 176. 4): as,— 
pacis semper auctor fui (Ligar. 28), 7 have always been an adviser of peace. 
quae pertinacia quibusdam, eadem aliis constantia vidéri potest (Marcel. 
31), what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency. 
€ius mortis sedétis ultores (Milon. 79), you sit as avengers of his death. 
habeatur vir €gregius Paulus (Catil. iv. 21), Ze¢ Paulus be regarded as an 
extraordinary man. 
ego patronus exstiti (Rosc. Amer. 5), 7 have come forward as an advocate. 
4. A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is in the 
plural: as, — 
consulés creantur Caesar et Servilius (B.C. iii. 1), Cesar and Servilius are 
elected consuls. 


c. For Predicate Accusative, see under that case, § 239. a. 


il. —ADJECTIVES. 
1. Rules of Agreement. 


186. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles 
agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case. 


vir fortis, 2 brave man. 

illa mulier, hat woman. 

urbium magnarum, of great cities. 

cum ducentis militibus, w7zth 200 soldiers. 
imperator victus est, éhe general was beaten. _ 


NOTE. — All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pro- 
nouns and to participles, 


Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate. 


a. An Attributive adjective simply qualifies its noun without the 
intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied. 

bonus imperator, @ good commander. 

stellae lucidae, dright stars. 

6. All other adjectives are called Predicate adjectives. 

1. A predicate adjective, like a predicate noun, may be connected 
with the subject by esse or a copulative verb expressed or implied (see 
§ 176. a): as, — ve 

' stellae licidae erant, the stars were bright. : 
. After verbs of naming, calling, making, etc., an adjective may be 
ject as a predicative accusative like a noun (see § 239..a). 

3. A predicate adjective may be used in apposition like a noun (see 

¢, below). 


§§ 186, 187.] Agreement of Adjectives. 173 


c. Predicate adjectives in apposition, follow the rules of agreement 
of other adjectives (see § 186, above): as, — 

Scipionem vivum vidi, 7 saw Scipio in his lifetime (lit., living). i 

d. With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but 
sometimes agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive). Thus, 

Nisus et Euryalus primi (Ain. v. 294), Misus and Euryalus first. 

Caesaris omni et gratia et opibus fruor (Fam. i.9), / enjoy all Cesar’s favor 

and resources. 

NOTE. — An adjective referring to two nouns connected by cum, is occasionally 
plural: as, — 

Iuba cum Labieno ecapti (B. Afr. 52), Fuba and Labienus were taken. 


187. One adjective may belong in sense to two or 
more nouns of different genders. 


a. In such cases, — 
1. An attributive adjective agrees with the nearest: as, — 


multae operae ac laboris, of much trouble and toil. 
vita moresque mei, wy life and character. 
si rés, si vir, si tempus illum dignum fuit (Mil. 19), 7/ any thing, if any 
man, tf any time was fit. 
2. A predicate adjective may agree with the nearest, if the nouns 
form one connected idea: as, — 


factus est strepitus et admurmuratiO (Verr. i. 45), @ noise of assent was 
made (noise and murmur). 


NOTE. — This is only when the Copula agrees with the nearest subject (§ 205. d). 


4. But generally, a predicate adjective will be masculine, if nouns of 
different genders mean diving beings; neuter, if things without life: as, 


uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi (Liv. ii. 40), then his wife and children 
embraced him. . 
labor (M.) voluptasque (F.), societate quadam inter sé natiirali sunt itincta 
(N.) (id. v. 4), dabor and delight are bound together by a certain natural 
alliance. 
Notr.—If nouns of different genders include both living beings and things 
without life, a predicate adjective is sometimes masculine (or feminine), sometimes 
neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with the nearest if that is plural: as, — 


rex regiaque classis una profecti (Liv. xxi. 50), the king and the royal fleet 
set out together. 
and a king are hostile. 

legatos sortesque Oraculi exspectandas (id. v. 15), that the ambassadors 
and the replies of the oracle should be waited for. 


174 Syntax: The Sentence. [$§ 187, 188. 

c. Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a predi- 
cate adjective in the neuter plural (cf. § 189. ¢): as, — 

stultitia et temeritas et iniustitia ... sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 39), folly, 

rashness, and injustice are [things] 40 be shunned. . 

d@. A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender 
and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals 
implied (Syzeszs, § 182. a): as,— 

pars certare parati (Ain. v. 108), @ part ready to contend, 


duo milia relicti (Liv. xxxvii. 39), ¢wo thousand were left. 
coloniae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latini appellati (id. i. 3), several colonies 


were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins. 
magna pars raptae (id. i. 9), @ derge part [of the women] were seized. 
omnis aetas currere obvil (id. xxvii. 51), [people of] every age ran to meet 


them. 
e. A superlative in the predicate sometimes takes the gender of the 


partitive genitive by which it is limited: as, — 
velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin.), the dolphin is the swiftest 
[creature] of creatures. 


2. Adjectives used Substantively. 

188. Adjectives are often used as Nouns (substantively), 
the masculine usually to denote men or people in general 
of that kind, the feminine women, and the neuter ¢hings : 
as, — ; 


omnés, a// men (everybody). 
maiores, ancestors. 
Romani, Romans. 


omnia, a// things (everything). 
minoreés, descendants. 

barbari, dardarians. 

liberta, a freedwoman. Sabinae, the Sabine wives 
sapiens, @ sage (philosopher). amicus, @ friend. 

boni, zhe good (good people). bona, goods, property. 


REMARK.— The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common 


in this use. The singular is rare except in a few words which have become practi- 
cally nouns, See below and § 189. a. 

a. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often 
modified by other adjectives. Thus, — 

tuus vicinus proximus, your next-door neighbor. 

propinqui ceteri, 22s other relatives. 


meus aequalis, 2 man of my own age. 
familiaris tuus, a2 intimate friend of yours (cf. § 218. d). 


6. When any ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an 
adjective, a noun must be added. Thus, — 


a ee ee ee ee 


7 
ie na 


9 lp Mh 


oe me ‘ Sea ge 


- 


— §§ 188, 189.] Adjectives used Substantively. 175 


boni, the good ; omnia, everything (ail things); but, — 
potentia omnium rérum, power over everything. [omnium alone would 
mean all men.] 


c. Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular or 
the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is understood 
from constant association: as, — 

Africus [ventus], the south-west wind. 

vitulina [caro], vead (calf’s flesh). 

fera [bestia], a wild beast. 

patria [terra], che fatherland. 

Gallia [terra], Gau/ (the land of the Galli). 

hiberna [castra], winder quarters. 

triremis [navis], @ tho ce-Lanked galley, trireme. 

argentarius [faber], @ s¢/versmith. 

regia [domus], che palace. 

Latinae [feriae], the Latin festival. 

Tusci [fundi], @ Zuscan estate. 

NOTE, — These are specific in meaning, not generic like those in § 188, above. 

d. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be 
modified by an adverb: as, — 

victor exercitus, the victorious army. 

servum pecus, @ servile troop. 

admodum puer, guize a boy (young). 

magis vir, more of a man (more manly). 

¢. A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are: — 

I. obviam: as, — 


fit obviam, e goes to meet (becomes in the way cf). 


2. contra, contradicting some previous adjective, and so in a 
manner repeating it: as, — 


alia probabilia, contra alia dicimus (Off. ii. 7), we call some things 
probable, others the opposite (not probable). 


3. palam:; as,— 
palam rés est, the thing ts all out. 
4, So also, rarely, by a Greek construction — 
eri semper lenitas (Ter. Andr. 175), my master’s constant (always) gentle- 
MESS. 
189. Neuter adjectives are used substantively in the fol- 
lowing special senses :— 


a. The neuter séugular may denote either a single object or an 
abstract quality: as, — 


176 Syntax: The Sentence. [$§ 189, 190. 


rapto vivere, 2o dive by plunder. 

in arido, on dry ground, 

honestum, az honorable act, or virtue as a quality. 

opus est maturato, here is need of haste (cf. impersonal passives, § 146. 2). 


6. The neuter Zlurad is used to signify objects in general having the 
quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea: as, — 


honesta, hoxorvadle deeds (in general). 
praeterita, the past (lit., bygones). 
omnes fortia laudant, ad? men praise bravery (brave things). 


c. A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate 
noun with a noun of different gender (cf. § 187. ¢): as, — 

turpitidd péius est quam dolor (Tuse. ii. 31), disgrace is [a thing] worse 
than pain. 

triste lupus stabulis, the wolf is a grievous thing for the sheepfold. 

varium et mutabile semper femina, woman is ever a changing and fickle 
thing. 

malum mihi videtur esse mors (Tuscul. i. 9), death seems to me to be an evil 
(a bad thing). 


ad. A neuter adjective is used in agreement with an Infinitive or a 
Substantive Clause : as, — 

istiic ipsum non esse (Tuscul. i. 12), that very “not to be.” 

himanum est errare, ¢o err is human. 

aliud est errare Caesarem ndlle, aluid nélle miseréri (Lig. 16), it 7s one 


thing to be unwilling that Cesar should err, another to be unwilling 
that he should pity. 


3. Possessives. 

190. Possessive and other derwative adjéctives are 
often used in Latin where the English has the possessive 
case, or a noun with a preposition (compare §§ 184. d, 
197. a): as, — 

pugna Cannensis, the jight at Canne. 

C. Blossius Cumanus, Caius Blossius of Cume. 

aliéna domus, another man’s house. 


Caesarina celeritas (Att. xvi. 10), i asses like Caesar’s (Ceesarian quick- 
ness). 


a. Possessive and other derivative adjectives are often used substan< 
tively to denote some special class or relation (see § 197. d@): as, — 
nostri, our countrymen or men of our party. 


Sullani, the veterans of Sulla’s army. 
Pompeiani, éhe partisans of Pompey. 


Ww 


- 


¢ 


§§ 190-93.] Comparatives and Superlatives. i 


4. A possessive or derivative adjective sometimes appears to be used 
for the Objective Genitive, see § 217. a. 


4. Adjectives with Adverbial Force. 


191. An adjective, agreeing. with the subject or object’ 
is often used to qualify the action of the verb, having the 
force of an adverb: as, — 


primus veénit, Ze came first (was the first to come). 

nullus dubit6, 7 20 way doudt. 

laeti audiére, chey were glad to hear. 

erat ROmae frequens (Rosc. A. 16), he was often at Rome. 

serus in caelum redeas (Hor. Od. i. 2), may’st thou return late to heaven. 


5. Comparatives and Superlatives. 


192. When two qualities of an object are compared, | 
both adjectives are in the comparative : as, — 


longior quam latior aciés erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer than it 
was broad (or, rather long than broad). 


a. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive: as, — 
clarI magis quam honesti (Jug. 8), more renowned than honorable. 
6. A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes 


connected by quam: as, — 


elaris maioribus quam vetustis (Ann. iv. 61), ofa family more famous than 
old, 
vehementius quam caute (Agric. 4), with more fury than good heed. 


NOTE. — This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed. 


193. Superlatives (and more rarely comparatives) de- 
noting order and succession—also medius, céterus, reli- 
quus — usually designate not what object, but what part 
of tt, is meant: as, — 

summus mons, ¢he top of the hill. 

in ultima platea, at the end of the place. 

prior actio, the earlier part of an action. 

reliqui captivi, ¢he rest of the prisoners. 

in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), half way up the hill (on the middle of the hill). 

inter ceteram planitiem (Jug. 92), i @ region elsewhere level. — 

NOTE, —A similar use is found in such expressions as sér& (mult&) nocte, 


late at night. But medium viae, the middle of the way; multum diéi, much 
of the day, also occur. 


178 Syntax: The Sentence. [§§ 194, 195. 


ill. —PRONOUNS, 


NoTE.—A pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or 
describing it, Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to 
have denoted only ideas of place and direction (§ 157. 2), and from which nouns or 
verbs can very rarely be formed. ‘They may therefore stand for Nouns when the 
person or thing, being present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed 
out. Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and 
have no distinction of gender. These are PERSONAL PRONOUNS. They stand 
syntactically for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns. Others designate 
a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. 
These are called ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, They stand for Adjectives,and have the 
same construction as adjectives. Others are used in both ways; and, though called 
adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender 
of the object indicated. 


1. Personal Pronouns. 


194. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same 
constructions as nouns. 


a. The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for 
distinction or emphasis (compare § 346. @): as, — 
té voco, J call yous but 
quis mé vocat? ego te voco, who is calling me ? I (emphatic) am calling you. 
6. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, 
that in -tim being used Jartitively (§ 216), and that in -I oftenest 
objectively (cf. § 213. 2): as, — 
maior vestrim, zhe elder of you. 
habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv.19), you have a leader 
who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) Azmself. 
pars nostriim, @ fart (7.e. some) of us. 
nostri melior pars animus est (Sen. )» the better part of us (i.e. of man) és 
the soul. 


NOTE, —“ One of themselves” is beidinsae’ by tinus ex suis or ipsis (rarely 
ex s6), or finus suGrum. The genitives nostrim, vestrim are occasionally 
used objectively (§ 217): as, cupidus vestriim (Ver. ili. 224), fond of you; 
ctst6s vestrim (Cat. iii. 29), the guardian of you (your guardian). 


c. The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except 
the reflexive (sé). The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or a Rela- 


tive (§§ 180. 7, 195, 201. ¢). 
2. Demonstrative Pronouns, 
195. Demonstrative pronouns are used either adjec- 
tively or substantively. 
As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement 
of adjectives (§§ 186, 187). 


hiner. 


§ 195.| Demonstrative Pronouns. 179 


As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pro- 
nouns. ‘This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially 
of is. Thus:— 


1. Personal :~ 


Caesar et exercitus 6ius, Cesar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar ex- 
ercitum suum dimisit, Cesar disbanded his [own] army.] 

si obsides ab eis darentur, ¢f hostages should be given by them (persons just 
spoken of ). 

his Caesar ita respondit, éo them Ceasar thus replied, 

ille minimum propter adolescentiam poterat, Ze (emphatic) had very Jittle 
power, on account of his youth. 

hi sunt extra provinciam trans Rhodanum primi, é4ey (those just mentioned ) 
are the first [inhabitants] across the Rhone. 


2. Adjective: — 
hic proelio factd, after this battle was fought (this battle having been, etc.). 
eddem proelio, iz the same battle. 
Gius rei periti, men acguainted with that business. 
[For special significations of the demonstratives, see § 102,] 


a. The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of reference, 
to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned: as, — 


nullam virtiis aliam mercédem deésiderat praeter hance laudis (Arch. 28), 
virtue wants no other reward except that [just spoken of] of praise. 


6. But the demonstrative as a pronoun of reference is commonly 
omitted, or some other construction is preferred: as, — 


memoriae artem quam oblivionis malo, J prefer (like more) the art oj 
memory to (than) [that] of forgetfulness. 

Caesaris exercitus Pompéianos ad Pharsalum vicit, the army of Cesar de- 
feated that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus. 


c. When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person o: 
thing already named, is or idem (often with the concessive quidem) 
is used to indicate that person or thing: as, — 


vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. iv. 7), imprisonment, and that perpetual. 

legionem neque eam plenissimam despiciebant (B. G. iii. 2), they despised 
the single legion, and that not a very full one. 

tuus dolor himanus is quidem sed, etc., your grief is human, to be sure, 
but, etc. 

per unum servum et eum ex gladiatorio ludo (Att. i. 16. 5), dy means of a 
single slave, and that too one from the gladiatoriad school. 

Ti. Gracchus régnum occupare conatus est, vel regnavit is quidem paucos 
ménsés (Lzl. xii. 41), Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, 
or rather he actually reigned a few months. 


180 Syniax: The Sentence. [§ 195. 


d@. An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predi- 
cate ncun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers 
(cf. § 199): as, — 

hic labor héc opus est, this is the totl, this the task [namely, revocaire 

gradum, which would regularly take a neuter pronoun]. 

rerum caput hoc erat, hic fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 45), his was the head of 

things, this the source. 

eam sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est cOnsecutus 

[for id... quod] (Lel. 18), they explain that [thing] ¢o be wisdom 
which no man ever yet attained. 


e. Idem, the same, is often equivalent to an adverb or adverbial 
phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time): as, — 


oratid splendida et grandis et eadem in primis facéta (Bru. 273), a# oration, 
brilliant, able, and very witty too. 

cum [haec] dicat, negat idem in Deo esse gratiam (N. D. i.121), when he 
says this, he denies also that there ts mercy with God (he, the same man). 


NOTE. — This is really the same use as in ¢, above, but in this case the pronoun 
cannot be represented by a pronoun in English. 


j. The intensive ipse, se/f; is used with any of the other pronouns 
or a noun for the sake of emphasis: as, — 


turpe mihi ipsi videbatur (Cic.), even fo me (to me myself) zt seemed dis- 
graceful. 

id ipsum, ¢hat very thing. 

quod ipsum, which of ttself alone. 

in eum ipsum locum, /o that very place. 


REMARK.— The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by just, very, 
mere, etc. (see above examples). 


g. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as an emphatic pronoun 
of the third person: as, — 


mihi satis, ipsis nn satis (Cic.), exough for me, not for themselves. 

omnes boni quantum in ipsis fuit (id.), 2/7 good men so far as was in their 
power (in themselves). 

beatos. illos qui cum adesse ipsis nOn licébat aderant tamen (id.), Aappy 
they who, when it was not allowed them to attend in person, still were 
there. 

di capiti ipsius generique reservent (Ain. viii. 484), may the gods hold in 
reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law’s head. 


h. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, to emphasize an omitted 
subject of the first or second person: as, — 


vobiscum ipsi recordamini (Cic.), remember in your own minds (yourselves 
with yourselves). -* 


§§ 195, 196.] Reflexive. Pronouns. 181 


z. Ipse, used substantively, sometimes refers to a principal per- 
sonage, to distinguish him from subordinate persons: as, — 


ipse dixit (cf. airds 2pa), HE (the Master) said iz. 
Nomentanus erat super ipsum (Hor.), Vomentanus was above [the host] 
himself (at table]. 


&. Ipse is often, is rarely, used instead of a reflexive. See under 
Reflexives, § 196. é. 

2. Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real emphasis 
is in English on a reflexive in the predicate: as, — 


mé ipse consolor, J console myseif. [Not mé ipsum, as the English would 
lead us to expect]. 


m. For adverbs used instead of a demonstrative pronoun, see § 207. a. - 


3. Reflexive Pronouns. 


196. The Reflexive pronoun (sé),! and usually its cor- 
responding possessive (suus), are used in some part of -the 
predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause: 
as, — 


virtus 86 nOvit, virtue knows itself. 

promisit sé venturum [esse], Ze promised that he would come, 

Brutus amicum suum occidit, Brutus killed his friend. 

Caesar statuit sibi Rhénum esse transeundum (B. G. iv. 16), Cesar decided 
that he must cross the Rhine (the R. must be crossed by himself). 


a, In a subordinate clause of a compound sentence there 
is a double use of reflexives. 


1. The Reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its | 
own clause (Direct Reflexive): as,— 


ex quo itidicari potest quantum habeat in sé boni constantia (B. G. i. 40), 
from which it can be determined how much good firmness possesses (has 
in itself). 

-[Caesar] noluit eum locum vacare, né Germani é suis finibus transirent 
(B. G. i. 28), Cesar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the 
Germans would cross over from their territories. — 

si qua significatiG virtitis éliiceat ad quam sé similis animus adplicet et 
adiungat (Lzlius 48), ¢f any sign of virtue shine sete to which a 
similar disposition may attach tiself. 





1 This seems to have been originally the personal pronoun of the third person 
{Skr. sva and Gr. opeis), but it came by use to be purely reflexive. 


182 Syntax: The Sentence. [§ 196. 


2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the 
subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to that 
subject (/udirect Reflexive): as,— 


petiérunt ut sibi liceret (B. G. i. 30), they begged that it might be allowed 
them (the petitioners). 

Iccius nuntium ad eum mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittatur, etc. (B.G. ii. 
6), sends him a message that unless relief be furnished him (Iccius), etc. 

quem salutem suam créditurum sibi (Q. C. iii. 8), who should trust his safety 
to him (Darius)? 

[Caesar] his uti conquirerent et reducerent, si sibi purgati esse vellent im- 
peravit (B. G. i. 28), Cesar ordered them (the Gauls) fo hunt up and 
bring back [the fugitives] if éhey (the Gauls) wished to be free from 
fault towards him (Czesar). 

hostium sé habiturum numero confirmat, si aut Ambiorigem aut éius legatos 
finibus suis recepissent, [Czesar] said that he should treat [them] as 
enemies if they received either Ambiorix or his envoys into their 
territories. 

decima legio ei gratias égit, quod dé sé optimum itdicium fécisset (B. G. i. 
41), the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed a 
high opinion of them. 

si obsidés ab eis (the Helvetians) sibi (Czesar, who is the speaker) darentur, 
sé (Czesar) cum eis pacem esse facturum (B.G. i. 14), [Caesar said] chat 
tf hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them, 

Tarquinium dixisse ferunt sé intellexisse quos fidos amicos habuisset, etc. 
(Lzelius 53), they say that Tarquin said that he understood, etc. 

NOTE. — Sometimes is or ipse is used as an Indirect Reflexive either from 

careless writing or to avoid ambiguity (cf. z) : as, — 

qui se ex his minus timidds existimari vellent, non sé hostem vereri, sed 
angustias itineris et magnitidinem silvarum quae intercéderent inter 
ipsds (the persons referred to by sé above) atque Ariovistum .. . timére 
dicebant (B. G. i. 39), chose of them who wished to be thought less timid 
satd they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and 
the vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovis- 
tus. 

audistis nuper dicere legatés Tyndaritands Mercurium qui sacris anniver- 
sariis apud eds colerétur Verris imperid esse sublatum (Verr. iv. 84), 
you have just heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue 
of Mercury which was worshipped with annual rites among them was 
taken away, etc. [Here Cicero wavers between apud eds colébatur, 
a remark of his own, and apud sé colerétur, the words of the gaz. 
eds does not strictly refer to the ambassadors, but to the people — the 
Tyndaritani. } 

3- If the subordinate clause does not express the words, etc., of the 

main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is occasionally 
found. Thus:— 


§ 196.] Reflexive Pronouns. 183 


sunt ita multi ut eds carcer capere non possit (Catil. ii. 22), they are so 
many that the prison cannot hold them. (Here sé could not be used. ] 

ibi in proximis villis ita bipartito fuerunt, ut Tiberis inter eds et pons in- 
teresset (Catil. iii. 5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest 
farmhouses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the 
bridge were between them (the divisions). [Here inter sé might be 
used, but it would refer to a purpose of the soldiers. ] 

non fuit eo contentus quod ei praeter spem acciderat (Leg. Manil. 25), 
he was not content with that which had happened to him beyond his 
hope. 

Compare: qui fit Maecénas ut nemo quam sibi sortem seu ratio dederit seu 
fors obiécerit illa contentus vivat (Hor. Sat. I. i. 1), Zow comes it, 
Mecenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has 
assigned him or chance has thrown in his way? [Here sibi is used to 
put the thought into the mind of the discontented man. } 

But, — Metellus in eis urbibus quae ad sé defecerant praesidia imponit (Sall. 
Jug. 61), Metellus posted garrisons in those cities which had revolted to 
him. [The author vacillates between the thought of Metellus and his 
own. | 


6. The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the 
subject of a suppressed main clause: as, — 


Paetus, omnes libros quos frater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (Att. ii. 1), 
Petus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation) 
his brother had left him (cf. a). 


c. The reflexive may refer to any noun in its own clause, which 
is so emphasized as to become in a manner the sudject of discourse (cf. 
the note): as, — 


Sodcratem cives sui interfécerunt, Socrates was put to death by his own fel- 
low-citizens. 

qui poterat salus sua cuiquam non probari (Milon. 81), how can any one 
fail to approve his own safety? [In this and the preceding example 
the emphasis is preserved in English by the change to the passive. ] 

hunc si secuti erunt sul comites (Cat. ii. 10), this man, if his companions 
follow him. 

NOTE. — Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is ab- 

sorbed: as, — 

studeOo sanare sibi ipsds (Catil. ii. 17), 7 am anxious to cure these men 
for their own benefit (i.e. ut sani sibi sint). 

suo sibi gladio (Plautus), with his own sword. [Here the clause is too 
indefinite to be supplied. ] 


d. The reflexive may follow a verbal noun or adjective: as, — 


sui laus, self. praise. 
impotens sui (Q. C.), without self-control. 
hominés cum sui similibus servis (Phil. i. 5), mex with slaves like themselves. 


184 Syntax: The Sentence.  * |§§ 196,197. 


é. The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive or 
verbal abstract used indefinitely: as, — 
bellum est sua vitia nosse (Cic.), 27s @ fine thing to know one’s own faults. 
cui proposita sit cOnservatio sui (Fin. v. 37), ome whose aim is self-preser- 
vation. 


f. Inter sé, among themselves, is regularly used to express recipro- 
cal action: as, — 
cohaerentia inter sé, ings consistent with each other. 


g. Suus is used for ove’s own as emphatically opposed to ¢hat of 
others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word in 
it: as, — 

suis flammis delete Fidenas (Liv. iv. 33), destroy Fidene with its own fires 

(the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Catil. i. 32.] 


h. For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases of 
the personal pronouns (mei, tul, etc.) are used (see p. 63): as, — 


morti mé obtuli (Milon. 94), 7 have exposed myself to death. 

hinc té réginae ad limina perfer (Ain. i. 389), do you go (bear yourself) 

hence to the queen’s threshold. 

quid est quod tantis nds in laboribus exerceamus (Archias 28), what 

reason ts there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils ? 

singulis vobis novenos ex turmis manipulisque vestri similés eligite (Liv. 

xxi. 54), for each of you pick out from the squadrons: and maniples 
nine like yourselves. 

z. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an éndirect reflexive, to 
avoid ambiguity; and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the 
direct reflexive (cf. a. 2 and 3): as,— 

cur de sua virtute aut de ipsius diligentia déspérarent (B. G. i. 40), why 

(he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence ? 
qui mortuo Dareo ipsas tueretur repperisse (Q. C. x. 5), we found one 
(said she) Zo protect us after the death of Darius. 

omnia aut ipsds aut hostés populatos (id. iii. 5), [they said that] ezther 

they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste. 


4. Possessive Pronouns. 

197. The Possessive pronouns are derivative adjectives, 
which take the gender, number, and case of the noun ¢o 
which they belong, not that of the possessor: as, — 

Caesar uxOrem suam repudiavit, Cesar put away his wife. 


haec sunt mea Ornamenta, chese are my Jewels. [mea is neut. pl., though 
the speaker is a woman. ] 


§ 197.] Possessive Pronouns. 185 


mej sunt ordinés, mea descriptid (Cat. M. 50), mine are the rows, mine 
the arrangement. (mea is fem., though the speaker is Cyrus.] 

multa in nostro collégio praeclara (Cat. M. 64), [there are] many fine 
things in our college. [nostro is neut. sing., though mez are referred 
to.] 


a. The possessive pronouns are used instead of the genitive of a 
personal pronoun. 
1. Always instead ot the Possessive Genitive: as,— 


domus mea, my house. [Never domus mei. ] 
pater noster, our father. [Never pater nostri.] 
patrimOnium tuum, your inheritance. [Not tui.] 


NOTE 1.— In different languages the ideas associated with possessives ‘are not 
always the same, and hence idiomatic uses differ. Thus my eu/ogist may, in Latin, 
be laudator nostri (Att. i. 14, 6), or, like the English, laud&ator noster (see 
Att. i. 16, 5), with a different conception of the relation. 

NOTE 2.— The Possessive ctlius, -a, -um, is rare: as, cCiium pecus? whose 
flock? ‘The genitive cHiius is generally used instead. 


2. Rarely instead of the Objective Genitive (§ 217, ef. note 1, above). 
Thus, regularly : — 

sul despiciens, disdainful of himself. 

non solum sui déprecatorem, sed etiam accisatdrem mel, ot only a media- 

tor for himself, but an accuser of me (Att. xi. 8). 
But occasionally, — 

ea quae faciebat, tua se fidticia facere dicebat (Ver. v. 176), what he was 

doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance). 

neque negligentia tua, neque id odio fecit tud (Ter. Phorm. 1016), from 

neglect or hatred of you. 

&. The possessives have often the acquired meaning of eculiar 
to, or favorable or propitious towards the person or thing spoken 
of: as,— 

[petere] ut sua clémentia ac mansuétudine utatur, sey asked (they said) 

that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity. 

tempore tu6d pugnasti, did you fight at a fit time ? (lit., your own). 

ignoranti quem portum petat nullus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71), 4o Aim 

who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind ts fair (his own). 


NOTE,— This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the pos- 
sessive, and may often be rendered literally. 
¢. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) when 
they are plainly implied in the context: as, — 
amicum gratulatur, Ze greets his friend. [amicum suum would be distinc- 
tive, Ais friend (and not another’s); suum amicum, emphatic, 425 
own friend. | 


186 Syntax: The Sentence. [§ 197, 


@. Possessives are often used substantively (§ 190. @): as, — 


nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party. 

suos continebat (B. G.i. 15), Ze held his men in check. 

flamma extrema medrum (Ain. ii. 431), dest flames of my countrymen. 

NOTE. — There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes 
a noun like other adjectives (see § 188). 


é. A possessive representing a genitivé may have a genitive in appo- 
sition (§ 184. 2): as,— 

mea solius causa, for my sake only. 

nostra omnium patria, the country of us all. 

suum ipsius regnum, 47s own kingdom. 

f. A possessive representing a genitive may serve as an antecedent 


to a relative (see § I99. 4. note). 
g. For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see § 196. 


5. Relative Pronouns. 


NoTE.—A Relative pronoun is properly an Adjective, in agreement with some 
word expressed or implied either in its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent 
(demonstrative) clause. The full construction would require the antecedent to 
be expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corresponding demonstrative 
to which the relative would refer: as,— 
iter in ea loca facere coepit, quibus in locis esse Germanos audiébat (B. 
G. iv. 7), Ze began to march into those PLACES tn which PLACES he heard 
the Germans were. 
But one of these nouns is commonly omitted. The antecedent is, in Latin, very 
frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative clause, but more commonly 
in the antecedent clause. Hence relatives serve two uses:— 
1. as Nouns (or adjectives) in their own clause: as, — 


ei qui Alesiae obsidebantur, those who were besieged at Alesia. 

2, as Connectives: as,— 

T. Balventio, qui superidre annOd primum pilum dixerat, 7itus Balventio, 

who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank. 

In this latter use they are often equivalent merely to a demonstrative with a con- 
junction: as,— 

quae cum ita sint (= et cum ea ita sint), [and] since these things are so. 
This connective force does not belong to the relative originally, but is developed 
from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use, The clauses were 
originally co-ordinate. Thus, qui quiétus anim6d est, is est sapiéns 
originally meant, Who is undisturbed in soul? That [man] és a sage. 

A Relative pronoun indicates a relation between its own 
clause and some substantive. This substantive is called 


the Antecedent of the relative. 


ee 
sf Spoleto: oS a 


‘+e it~ 


§§ 198, 199. ] Relative Pronouns. 187 


Thus, in the sentence — 

eum nihil délectabat, quod fas esset, nothing pleased him which was right, 
the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fas 
esset, indicating a relation between the two. 


198. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in GENDER 
and NuMBER; but its CASE depends on the construction of 
the clause in which it stands: as, — 


puer qui venit abiit, se doy who came has gone away. 
liber quem legis meus est, the book you are reading ts mine. 
via qua ambulat ducit ad urbem, the path he walks in leads to the city. 


This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in 
form: as, qualis, quantus, quicumque. 


NoTE.—The relative may be the subject or object of its own clause, or a 
modifier of either: as,— 
eds enim civés pugna illa sustulerat quibus non modo vivis sed etiam vic- 
toribus incolumis et floréns civitas esse posset (Phil. xiv. 23). 


_ @. If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules for 
the agreement of predicate adjectives ($§ 186, 187): as, — 


filium et filiam, quos valde dilexit, uno tempore amisit, he Jost a son and a 
daughter at the same time, whom he dearly loved. 

grandes natu matrés et parvuli liberi, quorum utrorumque aetas misericor- 
diam nostram requirit (Ver. v. 129), aged matrons and little children, 
whose time of life in each case demands our compassion. 

Otium atque divitiae quae prima mortales putant (Sall. Cat. 36), idleness 
and wealth which men count the first (objects of desire). 

eae fruges et fructus quoés terra gignit (N. D. ii. 37), chose fruits and crops 
which the earth produces. 


199. A relative generally agrees in gender and number 
with an appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, 
rather than with an antecedent of different gender or 
number (cf. § 195. 2): as, — 

mare etiam quem Neptunum esse dicebas (N. D. iii. 52), che sea, too, which 

you said was Neptune. [Not quod. ] 

Thébae ipsae, quod Boeotiae caput est (Liv. xlii. 44), even Thebes, which 

is the chief city of Beotia. [Not quae.] 

Nore. — This rule is occasionally violated: as, — 


flamen quod appellatur Tamesis (B. G. v. 11), a river which is called the 
Thames. 


188 Syntax: The Sentence. [$§ 199, 200. 


a. A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by a¢- 
traction): as, — 


si aliquid agas eOdrum quorum consuesti (Fam. v. 14), 7f you should de 
something of what you are used todo. [For edrum quae. ] 


é. A relative may agree in gender and number with an zwpiied ante- 
cedent: as, — 


quartum genus . . . qui aere vetere alieno vacillant (Cat. ii. 21), @ fourth 
class, that are staggering under old debts. 

iinus ex eO numer6 qui parati erant (Jug. 35), one of the number [of those] 
who were ready. 

coniuravere pauci . . . dé qua [7.e. conitiratione] dicam (Sall. Cat. 18), @ 
Jew have conspired . . . of which [conspiracy] / will speak. 

NOTE.—So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun 

(cf. § 197. /): as,— 

nostra qui adsumus salus, “he safety of us who are present. [Here qui 

agrees with the nostrim implied in nostra]. 


200. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both 
clauses ; but usually only in the one that precedes. Some- 
times it is wholly omitted. Thus— 


a. The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause: 
as, -— 


loci natura erat haec quem locum nostri delégerant (B.G. ii. 18), the 
nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this. 


&. The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause: 


quas rés in consulati nostrd gessimus attigit hic versibus (Arch. 28), Ae has 
touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship. 

urbem quam statuo vestra est (/En. i. 573), yours is the city which Tam 
founding. 


NOTE.—In this case a demonstrative (is, ille, or hic) usually stands in the 
antecedent clause: as,— 

istOs captivos duds, heri quos émi dé praeda... his indito catenas singula- 
rias (Plaut. Capt. 110), chose two prisoners that I bought yesterday, — 
put fetters on them. 

quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea princeps 
poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), shat part of the state which had brought 
disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty. 


In a sentence of this class the relative clause usually stands first in Latin (cf. § 
oI. c), as in the example, 


§§ 200, 201. | Relative Pronouns. 189 


¢. The antecedent may be entirely omitted, especially if it is in- 
definite: as, — 
qui decimae legionis aquilam ferébat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] who bore 


the eagle of the tenth legion. 
qui cognoscerent misit (id. i. 21), Ze sent [men] to reconnoitre (who should, 


iy & 
ad. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing with its 
antecedent in gender and number may stand in the relative clause: 
as, — 
vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 63), chose most 
beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to 
the vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.] 


é. The phrase id quod or quae rés is used (instead of quod alone) 

to refer toa group of words or an idea: — 

[obtrectatum est] Gabinid dicam anne Pompéid? an ‘pitgae —id quod est 
verius? (Manil. 57), a2 affront is offered—shall I say to Gabinius 
or to Pompey ? or —which is truer —to both ? 

multum sunt in venationibus .. . quae rés vires alit (B.G.iv. 1), chey spend 
much time in hunting, which [practice] txcreases their strength. [CEf. 
B. G. ii. 5.] 


NOTE. — But quod alone often occurs: as,— 


Cassius noster, quod mihi magnae voluptati fuit, hostem reiécerat (Fam. it. 
10), our friend Cassius— which was a great satisfaction to me—had 
driven back the enemy. 


201. In the use of relatives, the following points are to 
be observed: — 


a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English. 
Thus, — 
liber quem mihi dedisti, the book you gave me. 


is sum qui semper fui, / am the same man [ always was. 
e0 in loco est de qué tibi locutus sum, he is in the place I told you of. 


5. A relative clause in Latin often takes the place ef some other 
construction in English; particularly of a participle, an appositive, or a 
noun of agency: as, — 

léges quae nunc sunt, te existing daws (the laws which now exist). 

Caesar qui Galliam vicit, Cesar the conqueror of Gaul (who conquered 

Gaui). 

insta gloria quae est frictus virtutis, ¢-we glory [which is] the fruit of virtue, 

qui legit, @ reader (one who reads). 

We gui petit, the plaintiff (he who sues). 


190 Syntax: The Sentence. : [§ 201, 


c. In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually comes 
first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. § 200. 6): as, — 


quae mala cum multis patimur, ea nobis levidra videntur, che ee we suffer 
[in common] wth many, seem to us lighter. 


NOTE.—In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often 
contains a demonstrative pronoun which properly belongs in the antecedent 
clause: as,— 

ille qui consulté ...cavet, diutiné titi ei bene licet partum bene (Plaut. 

Rud. 1240), he who is on his guard, he may enjoy, etc. 


ad. The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause, or 
with some word of it, is put in the relative clause: as, — 


firmi amici, cuius generis est magna peniiria, steadfast friends, a class of 
which there ts great lack (of which class). 


é. A relative may stand (even with another relative or an interroga- 


tive) at the beginning of a sentence or clause, where in English a 
demonstrative must be used (§ 180. f): as, — 


quae qui audiebant, and those who heard this (which things). 
quae cum ita sint, and since these things are so. 
quorum quod simile factum (Cat. iv.13), what deed of theirs like this? 


jf. 1. A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent 
in the Locative case: as, — 


mortuus Cumis qué sé contulerat (Liv. ii. 21), heaving died at Cume, 
whither he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not 
in quas.] 


2. So, often, to express any relation of place naekse of the formal 
relative pronoun (cf. whence, whereto, wherewith): as, — 


locus qué aditus non erat, @ place to which (whither) there was no access. 
- regna, unde genus ducis, she kingdom from which you derive your race. 
unde petitur, the defendant (he wherefrom something is demanded, cf. 


§ 207. 2). 
g. The relatives qui, qualis, quantus, quot, etc., are often rendered 
simply by As? in English (§ 106. 4): as, — 


idem quod semper, che same as always. 

talis dux qualem Hannibalem novimus, such @ chief as we know Hannibal 
[to have been]. 

tanta dimicatid quanta numquam fuit, suck a fight as never was before. 

tot mala quot sidera, as many troubles as stars in the sky. 





1 The English as in this use is strictly a relative, though invariable in form, 


§§ 201, 202.] Indefinite Pronouns. IQI 


h. The general construction of relatives is found in clauses intro- 
duced by relative or temporal adverbs: as, ubi, qué, unde, cum, 
quaré. 

NOTE. — For the use of the Relative in idiomatic clauses of Characteristic and 


Result (est qui, dignus qui, quam qui, etc.), see § 320. 
For the use of Interrogatives, see § 210. 


6. Indefinite Pronouns. 


202. The Indefinite pronouns are used to indicate that 
some person or thing is meant, without designating what 
one. 

NOTE. — For the meanings of the compounds of qui and quis, see § 105. 


a. Of the particular indefinites meaning some or any (quis, quis- 
piam, nesci6é quis, aliquis, quidam), the simple quis is least definite, 
quidam most definite: as, — 

dixerit quis (quispiam), some one may say. 

aliqui philosophi ita putant, some philosophers think so. [quidam would 

mean certain particular persons defined to the speaker’s mind, though 
not named. | 

habitant hic quaedam mulierés pauperculae, some poor women live here 

[z.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would be aliquae 
or nescid quae]. 

b. Ina particular negative aliquis (aliqui) is regularly used, where 
in a universal negative quisquam (subst.) or tillus (adj.) would be 
required: as, — 

justitia nunquam nocet cuiquam qui eam habet (Cic.), justice never does 

harm to anybody who possesses tt. [alicui would mean é0 somebody who 
possesses tt. | 

sine aliquo metu, [you cannot do this] without some fear. 

sine U1l6 metu, [you may do this] wzthout any fear. 

cum aliquid non habeas (Tusc. i. 88), when there is something you have not. 

NOTE.— These pronouns are used in like manner in conditional and other 
sentences (§ 105. 2): as,— 

Si quisquam, ille sapiens fuit (Lzl. 9), 7fany man was (ever) @ sage, he was. 

dum praesidia wlla fuerunt (Rosc. A. 126), while there were any armed 

forces (till they ceased to be). 

Si quid in te peccavi (Att. iii. 15, 4), 7f 7 have done wrong towards you 

[in any particular case (see a, above) ]. 


c. Of the general indefinites, quivis and quilibet (any you will), 
utervis (¢zther you will, of two), are used chiefly in affirmative 
clauses, quisquam and Ullus (ay at a//) in clauses where a nega- 
tive is either expressed or implied: as, — 


192 Syntax: The Sentence. [§ 202. 


cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest, what can happen to any [one] 
man can happen to any man [whatever]. 

non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum, ¢¢ ¢s not every man’s luck to 
go to Corinth, [non cuiquam would mean xot any man’s.) 


minus habeo virium quam vestrim utervis, J Lave dess strength than either 


of you. [For the form utervis, see § 33.] 

quidlibet modo aliquid (Cic.), anything you will, provided it be some- 

thing. 

cur cuiquam misi prius, why did J send to anybody before [you]? © 

si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum, ¢f any man is timorous, I am he. 

cum haud cuiquam in dubio esset (Liv, ii. 3), when tt was not a matter of 

doubt to any one. 

si tempus est tillum jure hominis necandi (Milon. 9), éf there is any 

occasion whatever, ete. 

NOTE.— The use of these indefinites is very various, and must be learned from 
the Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them often depends merely on 
the point of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable, 
The differences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax. 


ad. The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each), and tinus 
quisque (every single one), are used in general assertions. They are 
equivalent to a plural, and sometimes have a plural verb (cf. § 205. ¢ 
2): as,— 
bonus liber melior est quisque quo maior, cre larger a good book ts, the 
better (each good book is better [in the same measure] as it is larger). 
ambo exercitiis suas quisque abeunt domos, doch armies go away, every 
man to his home. 
uterque utrique erat exercitus in cOnspectu, each army was in sight of the 
other (each to each). ; 
ponite ante oculds inumquemque regum, se¢ before your eyes each of the 
Rings. 
é. Quisque is regularly placed in a dependent clause, if there is one: 
quo quisque est sollertior, hoc docet iracundius (Rosc. Com. 31), she 
keener-witted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches (as each is so, etc.). 


NoTE. — Quisque is generally post-positive. Thus, suum cuique, Zo every : 


man his own, 


Ff. Némé5, xo one, is used : — 
1. As a substantive: as, — 


némo fit repente turpissimus, 20 one suddenly becomes absolutely base. 
2. As an adjective pronoun: as, — 


vir némo bonus (Leg. ii. 41), 20 good man. 


Norre.— Even when used as a substantive, n6m6 may take a noun in apposi- — 


tion: as,— 


nemo scriptor, zobody [who is] a writer, 


ee Te eee ee ae 


Se} ve 


ct) aa 


te. tuyere’ 


il a 


§ 203.] Axis and ALTER. 193 


7. Alius and Alter. 

203. The expressions alter . . . alter, the one... the 
other, alius . . . alius, ove . . . another, may be used in 
pairs to denote either divzszon of a group or reciprocity of 
action : as, — 


alii gladiis adoriuntur, alii fragmentis saeptorum (Sest. 79), some make an 
attack with swords, others with fragments of the railings. 

arma ab aliis posita ab aliis €repta sunt (Marcel. 31), arms were laid 
down by some and were snatched from others. 

duobus Rosciis Amerinis quorum alterum sedere in acctsatorum subselliis 
video, alterum tria huiusce praedia possidere audio (Rosc. Amer. 17), 
two Roscii of Ameria, one of whom TI see sitting on the benches of the. 
prosecution; the other, I hear, ts in Possession, etc, 

alterI dimicant, alteri victorem timent (Fam. vi. 3)» one party fights, the 
other fears the victor. 

hi fratres alter alterum amant, chese brothers love one another. 

alius alium percontamur, we ask each other. 


a. Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite number) ; 
alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; céteri and 
reliqui, a// the rest, the others; alteruter, one of the two. Thus,— 


quid aliud agis, what else are you doing (what other thing) ? 

cum etiam hi quibus ignovisti, nolint te esse in alids misericordem (Lig. 
15), when even those whom you have pardoned are unwilling that 
you should be merciful to others. 

ini epistulae respondi, venio ad alteram (Fam. ii. 17, 6), ome letter [ ps 
answered, I come to the other. . 

tnus atque item alter, ove and then [likewise] another. [Of an indefinite 
number, but strictly referring only to the second. ] 

alterum genus (Cat. ii. 19), the second class. 

iecissem ipse me potius in profundum ut céterds conservarem (Sestius, 45), 
I should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest. 

horum utro uti nolumus, alterd est utendum (Sestius, 92), whichever of 
the two we do not wish to have, we must take the other. 

Servilius consul, reliquique magistratus (B.C. iii. 21), Servilius the consul 
and the rest of the magistrates. 

cum sit necesse alterutrum vincere (Fam. vi. 3), when it must be that one 
of the two should prevail. 


6, Alius and alter are often used to express ove as well as another 
(the other) of the objects referred to: as, — 


alter coOnsulum, ove of the [two] consuls, 
_ aliud est maledicere, aliud acctsare (Cic.), i¢ is one. yo to slander, 
another to accuse. : 


194 Syntax: The Sentence. [$§ 203, 204. 


¢. Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same 
stem, expresses shortly a double statement: as, — 


alius aliud petit, ome man seeks one thing, one another (another seeks 
another thing). 

alius alia via civitatem auxérunt (Liv. i. 21), they enlarged the State, each 
in his own way. 


iussit alios alibi fodere (Liv. xliv. 33), 4e ordered different persons to dig in 
various places. 


NOTE.— Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an in- 
definite number where oxe is opposed to adi the rest taken singly: as, — 


qui alterum inciisat probri eum ipsum sé intuéri oportet (Pl. Truc. 159), 
he who accuses his neighbor of wrong ought to look at himself (the 
other, there being at the moment only two concerned). 

dum ne sit te ditior alter (Hor. Sat. i. 1. 40), so dong as another is not 
richer than you. 

non ut magis alter, amicus (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 33), @ friend such that no 

other is more so. 


IV.— VERBS. 
1. Verb and Subject. 


204. A Finite verb agrees with its Subject in Number 
and Person: as, — 


ego statuod, J resolve. 

senatus deécrevit, the senate ordered. 

silent leges inter arma, the laws are dumb in time of war. 

NoTE.—In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the 
subject in gender and number (§ 186): as, — 


Oratio est habita, zhe plea was delivered. 
bellum exortum est, a@ war arose. 


a. A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the ex- 
pressed or implied antecedent: as, — 


adsum qui féci (Ain. ix. 427), here am I who did it. 


6. The verb sometimes agrees in number, a participle in the verb- 
form in number and gender, with an appositive or predicate noun: as, — 


amantium irae amoris redintegratio est (Ter. Andr. 555), éhe quarrels of 
lovers are the renewal of love. 

non omnis error stultitia est dicenda (Div. ii. 90), mot every error should 
be called folly. 

Corinthus limen Graeciae exstinctum est, Corinth, the light of Greece, is 
put out. 





§ 205.| Double Subject. “35 


2. Double Subject. 


205. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the 
plural: as, — 

pater et avus mortui sunt, 47s father and grandfather are dead. 

NOTE.—So rarely (by a construction according to the sense, § 182) when to 
the subject is attached an ablative with cum: as,— 


dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), the general and sev- 
eral chiefs are taken. 


_a. When subjects are of different Zersons, the verb is in the first 
person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third: 
as, — 

si tu et Tullia valétis ego et Cicero valémus (Fam. xiv. 5), ¢f you and 


Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well, [Notice that the first person 
is also first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.] 


NOTE.—In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule 
for predicate adjectives; see § 187. 4, c. 

6. If the subjects are connected by disjunctives, or if they are con- 
sidered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular: as, — 


quem neque fides neque itsitrandum neque illum misericordia repressit 
(Ter. Ad. 306), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him. 

Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v. 8), ze Roman Senate 
and people understand. But,—neque Caesar neque ego habiti esse- 
mus (Fam. xi. 20), neither C. nor I should have been considered. 


¢. A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular: as, — 
Senatus haec intelligit (Catil. i. 2), the Senate is aware of this. 
ad hiberna exercitus redit (Liv. xxi. 22), the army returns to winter-quar- 
“ers. 
1. But the plural is often found with collective nouns when zndivid- 
uals are thought of: as,— 
pars praedas agébant (Jug. 32), ¢ part brought in booty. 
cum tanta multitiidd lapidés conicerent (B. G. ii. 6), when such a crowd 
was throwing stones. 
NOTE. — The point of view may change in the course of a sentence: as, — 
equitatum omnem .. . quem habebat praemittit, qui videant (B. G. i. 15), 
he sent ahead all the cavalry he had, to see (who should see). 
2. Quisque has very often a plural verb, but may be considered as 
in apposition with a plural subject implied (cf. § 202. @): as, — 
sibi quisque habeant quod suum est (Plaut. Curc.), /e¢ every one keep his 
own (let them keep every man his own). 


196 Syntax: The Sentence. [§§ 205-7. 


ad. When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it 
may agree with one and be understood with the others: as, — 


intercédit M. Antonius et Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2), Antony and 
Casstus, tribunes of the people, interpose. 


3. Incomplete Sentences. 
206. The subject of the verb is sometimes omitted. Thus: 


a. A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless emphatic. 
Thus, — 
loquor, / speak. But, ego loquor, zz zs J that speak. 


6. An indefinite subject is often omitted. 

This is usually a plural, as in dicunt, ferunt, perhibent (¢hey say) ; 
but sometimes singular, as in inquit (Tusc. i. 93), ove says (referring 
to a class of reasoners just spoken of). 

c. The verb is often omitted. Thus,— 

1. DicG, faci6, ag6 and other verbs in familiar phrases: as, — 


quorsum haec [spectant], what does this aim at? 

ex ungue leOnem [cognosceés], you will know a lion by his claw. 

quid multa, what need of many words ? (why should I say much?) 

quid? quod, what of this, that, etc.? (what shall I say of this, that, etc.?) 
[A form of transition. ] 

_ Aeolus haec contra (Ain. i. 76), olus thus [spoke] in reply. 

tum Cotta [inquit], then said Cotta. 

di meliora [duint], Heaven forefend (may the gods grant better things) ! 

unde [venis] et quo [tendis], where are you from and where bound? 

2. The copula sum, very commonly in the indicative and infinitive, 

rarely (except by late authors) in the subjunctive: as,— 

tu conitinx (/En, iv. 113), you [are] Ais wife. 

omnia praeclara rara (Lal. 79), ad/ the best things are rare. 

potest incidere saepe contentio et comparatio de duobus honestis utrum 
honestius (Of. i. 152), @ comparison of two honorable actions, as to 
which is the more honorable. [Here, if any copula were expressed, it 
would be sit, but the direct question would be complete without any.] 

accipe quae peragenda priuS (Ain. vi. 136), hear what is first to be accom- 
plished. (Direct: quae peragenda prius?] 

Cf., for omission of a Subjunctive, — cum ille ferdciter ad haec [diceret]} 
(Liv. i. 48), upon his replying with insolence to this, that, etc. 


V.— PARTICLES. 
1. Adverbs. 
207. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, 
and other Adverbs. 


§ 207.] | Adverbs. 197 


NOTE 1,—For the derivation and classification of adverbs, see §§ 148, 149. 

NOTE 2.— The proper functions of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to 
modify Verbs: as, celeriter ire, fo go with speed. It is from this use that they 
derive their name (adverbium, from ad, Zo, and verbum, verd; see § 163. /}. 
They also modify adjectives, showing in what manner or degree the quality 
described is manifested: as, Splendid6 mend&x, gloriously false. More rarely 
they modify other adverbs: as, nimis graviter, vo severely. 

NOTE 3.— Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and 
are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see § 25. 2. note), 


a. A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the 
corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see § 201. f): as, — 

ed (= in ea) imponit vasa (Jug. 75), «fon chem (thither, thereon, on the 
beasts) he puts the camp-utensils. 

ed milites imponere (B. G. i. 42), 0” them (thereon) he puts the soldiers. 

apud eds qué (= ad qués) se contulit (Verr. iv. 38), among those to whom 
(whither) he resorted. 

qui eum necasset unde ipse natus esset (Rose. Am. 71), one who should 
have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth). 

0 miseras condiciOnés administrandarum provinciarum ubi [= in quibus} 
severitas periculosa est (Flacc. 87), of! wretched terms of managing 
the provinces, where strictness 1s dangerous. 


&. The adverbs propius, xear; proximé, mext (like the adjectives 
propior, proximus); pridié, tle day before; postridié, the day 
after, are sometimes followed by the accusative (see § 261. a). 

The adverbs palam, ofenly; procul, afar; simul, at the same time, 
are sometimes followed by the ablative (see § 261. 0). 

NOTE. — Pridié and postridié are often used with the genitive (§ 223. ¢.n. 2). 
Clam, without the knowledge of, may take the accusative, the ablative, or the gen- 
itive (§ 261. ¢). 

¢. Many perfect participles used as nouns regularly retain the adverb 
which modified them as participles: as, — 


praeclare factum, @ glorious deed (a thing gloriously done). 


ad. Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which contain a verbal 
idea (cf. § 188. 7): as,— 


populus late réx (Ain. i, 21), a people ruling far and wide. 
hinc abitio (Plaut.), a going away from here. 
quid cogitem de obviam itidne (Att. xiii. 50), what J think about going to 
meet [him]. [Perhaps felt as a compound. } 


é. For adverbs used as adjectives, see § 188. 4. 


NOTE.—In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as 
an adjective modifying the noun (as in § 188. ¢), or the noun modified is: treated 
as an adjective (as in § 188. ¢). 


= i 


198 Syntax: The Sentence. [§ 208, 


2. Conjunctions. 
Nore. — For the classification of conjunctions, see §§ 154, 155. 
208. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect 
similar constructions, and are regularly followed by the 
same case or mood that precedes them: as, — 


scriptum senatui et populd (Catil. iii. 10), wrétten to the senate and peopie. 

ut eas [partis] sanares et confirmares (Milon. 68), ¢hat you might cure and 
strengthen those parts. 

neque mea prudentia neque humanis consiliis fretus (Catil. ii. 29), rely- 
ing neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom. 


a. Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tanquam, quasi) also 
commonly connect similar constructions: as, - 

his igitur quam physicis potius credendum existimas (Div. ii. 37), do you 
think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers ? 

hominem callididrem vidi neminem quam Phormionem (Ter. ), @ shrewder 
man I never saw than Phormio (cf. § 247. a). 

ut non omne vinum sic non omnis natura vetustate coacescit (Cato Major, 
65), as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature. 

Cf. perge ut instituisti (Rep. ii. 22), go o” as you have begun. 

in mé quasi in tyrannum (Philip. xiv. 15), agaiust me as against a tyrant. 


6. Two or more co-ordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often 
put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, § 346.c): as, — 

omnes di, hominés, @// gods and men: 

summi, medii, infimi, che highest, the middle class, and the lowest. 

liberi, servi, freemen and slaves. 


1. Where there are more than two co-ordinate words, etc., a conjunc- 
tion, if used at all, must be used with all (or all except the first) : as, — 
aut aere aliend aut magnitidine tributorum aut iniuria potentidrum (B. G. 
vi. 13), by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of the 
powerful. 
summa fide et constantia et iustitia, wethk perfect good faith, [and] consist- 
ency, and justice. [Not fidé constantia et itistitia, as in English. ] 
2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members of 
the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups them- 
selves express the conjunction (or omit it): as, — 


propudium illud et portentum, L. Antonius insigne odium omnium homi 
num (Phil. xiv. 8), that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the 
abomination of all men. 

utrumque égit graviter, auctdritate et offensidne animi non acerba (Lee. 
77), he acted in both cases with dignity, without loss of authority, 
and with no bitterness of feeling. 


§§ 208, 209.] Conjunctions,; Negative Particles. 199 


3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a 
series, even when there is no grouping apparent: as, — 

voce vultu motuque (Brut. 110), dy voice, expression, and gesture. 

curam consilium vigilantiamque (Phil. vii. 20), care, wisdom, and vigi- 
lance. 

multd siidGdre labdre vigiliisque (Caecil. 72), with much fatigue, toil, and 
waking. 

quorum auctoritatem dignitatem voluntatemque defenderas Soe 4s: 95°20) 
whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended. 


c. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly con- 
nected by a conjunction: as, — 


multae et graves causae, many weighty reasons. 


d. Many words properly adverbs may be used correlatively, and so 
become conjunctions, partly or wholly losing their adverbial force (see 
§ 107). Such are,~ 

cum... tum, while... so also (both...and). 

tum...tum, zow... mow. 

modo... modo, zow... now. 

simul... simul, a¢ the same time... at the same time (at once ...as well as). 

qua... qua, wow... mow. 

nunc... nunc, ow... now. 

Thus, — 

eum difficile est, tum né aequum quidem (Lzlius 26), mot only ts it diffi- 

cult, but even unjust. 

€rumpunt saepe vitia amicorum tum in ipsos amicos tum in alienos (Leel- 

ius 76), the faults of friends sometimes break out, now against their 
friends themselves, now against strangers. 

modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714), now he says yes, now no. 

simul gratias agit, simul gratulatur (Q. C. vi. 7), he thanks him and at the 

same time congratulates him. 

qua maris qua féminas (Plaut. Mil. 1113), doch males and females. 

e. Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together, for 
the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what pre- 
cedes: as, at vér6, dut in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque 
erg6, accordingly then; namque, for; et-enim, for, you see, for of 
course (§ 156. a). 

f. For conjunctions introducing subjunctive clauses, see Chap. V. 


3. Negative Particles. 
NOTE.— For the list of negative particles, see § 149. ¢. 
209. In the use of the Negative Particles, the following 
points are to be observed :— 


200 Syntax: The Sentence. [$ 209 


a. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative, as in English 
(§ 150): as, ném6 n6n videt, everybody sees. 
But a general negation is not destroyed — 
1. By a following né... quidem, ot even, or nbn modo, xot only: 
as, —? 
numquam tu ndn modo otium, sed né bellum quidem nisi nefarium con- 
cupisti (Catil. i. 25), ot only have you never desired repose, but you 
have never desired any war except one which was infamous, 


2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordinate 
member: as, — 


eaque nesciébant nec ubi nec qualia essent (Tusc. iii. 4), they knew not 
where or of what kind these things were. 


3. By neque introducing a co-ordinate member: as, — 


nequed satis mirari neque conicere (Ter. Eun. 547), 7 cannot wonder 
enough nor conjecture. 


6. The negative is frequently joined to some other word. Hence 
the forms of negation in Latin differ from those in English in many 
expressions. Thus, — 

neque (nec) (not et n6n), avd not, but not (neither . . . nor). 

nec quisquam (not et ném6), avd no one (nor any one). 

nulli ov neutri credo (not non crédd alli), 7 do not believe either 

(I believe neither). 

nego haec esse vera (not dicd non esse), J say this ts not true (I deny 

that these things are true). 

sine ulld periculo (less commonly cum niullo), with no danger (without 

any danger). 

nihil unquam audivi itcundius, 7 mever heard anything more amusing 

(nothing more amusing have I ever heard). 


c. A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary 
(Litotes) : as, — 
non haec sine nimine divOm éveniunt (Ain. ii. 777), these things do not 


occur without the will of the gods. 
haec non nimis exquiro (Att. vii. 18, 3), of very much, i. e. very little, 


NoTE.— Compare n6nniillus, n6nnémG, ete. (§ 150. a). 


d. The particle imm6, way, is used to contradict some part of a 
preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case, the 
same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that imm6 be- 
comes nearly equivalent to yes (way but, nay rather): as, — 


causa igitur non bona est? imm6 optima (Att. ix. 7), 2s che cause then not 
@ good one? on the contrary, the best, 


§§ 209, 210.] | Questions. 201 


é. Minus, /ess (especially with si, 74, qu6, zz order that), and 
minimé, /eas¢, often have a negative force. Thus, — 


si minus possunt, zf hey cannot. [For qué minus, see §§ 319. ¢, 331. ¢.] 
audacissimus ego ex omnibus? minimé (Rosc. Am. 2), am J the boldest 
of them all? by no means (not at all). 


[For do ot in Prohibitions, see § 269. a.] 


VI.— QUESTIONS. 
210. Questions are either Direct or Indirect. 
1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker: as, — 


quid est? what is it? 


2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted 
to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends ona 
verb or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like : as, — 


rogavit quid esset, Ze asked what it was. [Direct: quid est, what zs i¢ 7] 
nescio ubi sim, / know not where Jam. (Direct: ubi sum, where am J?] 


Questions in Latin are introduced by special inter- 
rogative words, and are not distinguished by the order of 
words, as in English. 

NOTE. — For the list of Interrogative Particles, see § 149. d. 


a. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer YES or NO, is 
formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word: as, — 
tune id veritus es (Cic.), did you fear that ? 


hicine vir usquam nisi in patria morietur (Milon. 104), sha// THIS man die 
anywhere but in his native land? 


d. The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted: as, — 
patere tua cOonsilia non sentis (Cat. i. 1), do you not see that your schemes 
are manifest? (you do not see, eh?) 


NOTE.— In such cases no sign of interrogation appears except in the punctua- 
tion, and it is often doubtful whether the sentence is a question or an ironical 
statement, 

c. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word,—as in 
nénne, — an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num sug- 
gests a megative answer. Thus, — 


nonne animadvertis (N. D. iii. 89), do you not observe ? 
num dubium est (Rosc. A. 107), there is no doubt, ts there? 


202 Syntax: The Sentence. [$§ 210, 211. 


d. The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly 
when added to some other word, has the force of nénne: as, — 


meministine mé in senatu dicere (Cat. i. 7), don’t you. remember my say- 

ing in the Senate? 

rectene interpretor sententiam tuam (Tuscul. iii. 37), ¢ do I not rightly 

interpret your meaning ? 

NOTE.— This was evidently the original meaning of -ne; but in most cases the 
negative force was lost and -n@ was used merely to express a question. So the 
English interrogative zo? shades off into e4? 

REMARK.— The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words: 
as, utrumne, whether; anne, or; Quantane (Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 317), Zow big? 
qudne mailé (id. 290), dy what curse ? 


e. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed by 
prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb (§ 106), 
as in English: as, — 

quid est quod iam amplius exspectés (Cat. i. 6), what és there for you to 

look for any more ? | 
quo igitur haec spectant (Fam. vi. 6), whither then is all this tending? 

Icare, ubi es (Ov. M. viii. 232), /earus, where are you? 

REMARK.—A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the 
inflection of the voice: as, qQUalis vir erat! whata man he wast quot cala- 
mitatés passiI sumus! Low many misfortunes have we suffered! 

f- The particles nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to inter- 
rogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis: as, — 

quisnam est, pray who ts it? [quis tandem est? would be stronger. ]} 

ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we ? 

in qua tandem urbe hoc disputant (Milon.-7), iz what city, pray, do they 

maintain this ? 

NoTe.— Tandem is sometimes added to verbs: as,— 

ain tandem (Fam. ix. 21), you don’t say so! (say you so, pray?) 

itane tandem, quaeso, est (Ter. Heaut. 954), #2’s so, ts tt then? 

itane tandem uxorem duxit Antipho (Ter. Ph. 231), so chen, eh ? Antipho’s 

got married? 


REMARK.— The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether, 
or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct; 
the difference being only in the verb, which in indirect questions regularly takes 
the Subjunctive (§ 334). 

In indirect questions num loses its peculiar force (} 210. ¢) 


Double Questions. 
211. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry 


as to which of two or more supposed cases is the true 
one. 


§§ 211, 212.] Questions. 203 


In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne, 
whether, stands in the first member; an, anne, 07; anndn, 
necne, 07 vot, in the second; and usually an in the third, if 
there be one: as, — 


-utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. x. 26), és i¢ that you don’t 
know, or do you think nothing of tt ? 
quaero servosne an liberds (Rosc. Am. 74), / ask whether slaves or free. 
utrum hostem an vos an fortunam utriusque populi ignoratis (Liv. xxi. 
10, 6), zs é¢ the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, 
that you do not know ? 


REMARK.— Ann6n is more common in direct questions, necne in indirect. 


a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first member ; 
in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second: as, — 
Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio an utrique cise 57), shall I say to 
Gabinius, or to Pompey, or to both? 
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 41), ave chese your words or not ? 
4. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anne) 
alone asks the question, — usually with indignation or surprise: as, — 
an tu miserds putas illos (Tusc. i. 13), what! do you think those men 
wretched ? 
c. Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum 
may ask a question to which there is no alternative: as, — 
utrum in clarissimis est civibus is, quem. . . (Flacc. 45), 7s he among the 
noblest citizens, whom, etc.? 
@. The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative 


questions : — . 
utrum...an...an 


utrum...ann6n 
...an (anne) 





‘ne ...an 

—  ...-ne, necne 
-ne ...necne 

-ne ...mne 


Question and Answer. 


212. There is no one Latin word in common use mean- 
ing simply yes or xo. In answering a question affirmatively, 
the verb or some other emphatic word is generally re- 
peated; in answering xegatively, the verb, etc., with non 
or a similar negative: as. — 


204 Syntax: The Sentence. [§ 212. 


valetne, és he well? valet, yes (he is well). 

eratne tecum, was ke with you? non erat, zo (he was not). 

numquidnam novi éhere ts nothing new, ts there ? nihil sané, oh / nothing. 

a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is some 
times used to answer a direct question: thus, — 

1. For YES:— 

vero, i truth, true, no doubt, yes. ita vérd, certainly (so in truth), etc. 

etiam, eve so, yes, etc. sane quidem, yes, xo doubt, etc. 

ita, so, ¢rue, etc. ita est, ¢¢ zs so, true, etc. 

sane, surely (soundly), 20 doubt, doubiless, etc. 

certé, cer/ainly, most assuredly, unquestionably, etc. 

factum, ¢rve (it was done), zs a fact, youre right, etc. 


2. For NO:— 

non, ot [so}. nullo modo, dy xo means. 
minimeé, of at 2/2 (in the smallest degree, cf. § 209. ¢). 

minimeé vero, 20, not by any means; oh! no, etc. 

non quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc. 

non hercle vero, why, gracious, no (certainly not, by Hercules)! 


Examples are :— 

quidnam? an laudatidnés? ita, why, what? is it eulogies ? just so. 

aut etiam aut n6n respondére (Academ. ii. 104), 40 answer (categorically) 
yes or no. 

estne ut fertur forma? sané (Ter. Eun. 361), ¢s [she] as handsome as they 
say she ts (is her beauty as it is said) ? of/ yes. 

fugisne hinc? ego vér6 ac lubens (Ter. And. 337), wit you clear out from 
here? indeed I will, and be giad to. 

miser ergo Archelaus? certé si iniustus (Tuscul. v. 35), was Archelaus 
wretched then? certainly, if he was unjust. . 

haec contemnitis? minimé (De Orat. ii. 295), do you desprse these things ? 
not at all. 

volucribusne et feris? minimé vérd (Tuscul. i. 104), do the birds and 
beasts ? why, of course not. 

ex tui animi sententia tu uxdrem habes? non hercle, ex mei animi sen: 
tentia (De Orat. ii. 260), Zord/ no, etc. 


%. In answering a double question, one member of the alterna- 
tive, or some part of it, must be repeated: as, — 
tine an frater erat, was é¢ you or your brother? ego [eram], it was J. 


REMARK.— From double (alternative) questions must be distinguished those 
which are in themselves single, but of which some detail only is alternative. These 
have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve). Thus,— 

quaerd num iniusté aut improbé fécerit (Off. iti. 54), J ask whether he acted 

unjustly or even aishonesily. 


Here there is no double question. The only inquiry is whether the man did 
either of the two things supposed, not which of the two he did. 


: 


Construction of Cases. 205 


Cuaptrer [].— Construction of Cases. 


NOTE.—The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence, 
The most primitive way of expressing such relations is by mere juxtaposition of 
roots or stems, From this arises in time composition, the growing together of stems 
by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent, 
Thus such a complex as armo-gero- comes to mean erm-dearing; fidi-cen-, 
playing on the lyre, Later, Cases are formed by means of suffixes to express 
more definitely such relations, and Syntax begins. But the primitive method 
of composition still continues to hold an important place even in the most highly 
developed languages, 

Originally the family of languages to which Latin belongs had at jon seven 
cases, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and Instrumental were 
lost except in a few words (where they remained without being recognized as 
cases) and their functions were divided among the others ($§ 224, 242). 

The Nominative, Accusative, and. Vocative express the oldest forms of case- 
relations (Direct Cases, § 31.g. note), The Nominative is the case of the Subject, 
and the -8 in which it generally ends is thought to be a demonstrative pronoun 
(§ 32, n. 2). The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative 
(§ 33. 2), perhaps never had a suffix of its own. The Accusative, most frequently 
formed by the suffix -m (doubtless another demonstrative), originally connected 
the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, 
but as well by a noun or adjective (see page 235, head-note). 

The other cases were formed by combination with various pronominal suffixes, 
and at first probably expressed relations of place or direction (TO, FROM, AT, 
WITH: Jndirect Cases, § 31. ¢.note). But these original meanings have become 
confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguish- 
able either in form or meaning. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from 
its confusion with the Dative and Ablative; and its function was often performed 
by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (§ 258. f). ‘To indi- 
cate relations of place more precisely, Prepositions (originally Adverbs) gradually 
became necessary. ‘These by degrees rendered the case-endings useless, and so 
have finally superseded them in all modern languages derived from Latin, But in 
Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by case-forms, !t 
is to be noticed that cases in their ¢@¢era/ use tended to adopt the preposition, and 
in their figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation, 
§ 243; Ablative of Place and Time, §§ 254, 256.) 

The word casus, case, is a translation of the Greek rT@a1s, a falling away (from 
the erect position). The term rt@ois was originally applied to the Oblique Cases (§ 
31.”), to mark them as variations from the Nominative, which was called 6p04 (casus 
rectus), Thelater name Nominative (cisus ndminativus) is from némin6, and 
means the zaming case. The other case-names (except ablative) are of Greek origin. 
The name Genitive (casus genetivus) is a translation of yevueh [rta@ots], from 
yévos (class), and refers to the c/ass to which a thing belongs. Dative (casus dativus, 
from 6) is translated from So7v«, and means the case of giving. Accusative 
(acct sativus, from acciisS) is a mistranslation of airtarih (the case of causing), 
from airia, cause, and meant to the Romans the case of accusing, The name 
Vocative (vocativus, from vocS) is translated from xAyTucd (the case of calling). 
The name Ad/ative (adbdativus, from ablatus, auferd) means taking from, This 
case the Greek had lost. 


206 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 213, 


{.— GENITIVE. 


NOTE.— The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of one noun to 
another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective case, to distinguish it from 
the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial cases, Its uses may be 
classified as follows :— 


(1. Of Possession (§ 214). 
2, Of Source developed into Material (§ 214. ¢). 
I, GENITIVE WITH } 3. Of Quality (§ 215). 
NOUNS: 4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part (Partitive, 
§ 216). 
| 5. With Nouns of Action and Feeling () 217). 
II, GENITIVE WITH (1. Relative adjective (or Verbal) (§ 218. a, 4). 
ADJECTIVES: | 2. Of Specification (later use) (§ 218. c). 
III. GENITIVE WITH (1. Of Memory,. Feeling, etc. (§§ 219, 221-23). ; 
VERBS; - Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (§ 220). 


a 





I. GENITIVE WITH NOUNS. 


af 213. A noun used to limit or define another, and not 
meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive. 


This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the prepo- 
sition OF: as, — 

libri CicerOnis, the books of Cicero. 

talentum auri, ¢ ¢alent of gold. 

vir summae virtutis, @ man of the greatest courage. 

pars militum, @ part of the soldiers. 

cultus deorum, worship of the gods. 

vacatio laboris, @ respite from toil. 

.victor omnium gentium, conqueror of all nations. 

In most constructions the genitive is either Subjective 
or Objective. 

1. The Subjective genitive denotes that to which the noun limited 
belongs, or from which it is derived (§ 214). 

2. The Objective genitive denotes that toward which an action or 
feeling is directed (§ 217 ff.). 

This distinction is illustrated by the following example. The phrase 

amor patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a 
father’s love (subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective 
genitive). 

NOTE.— The genitive seems to have denoted originally that to which something 
belongs, and hence it was originally subjective. The objective genitive is a later 
development, through such expressions as mei laudatorés, my admirers, in which 
the admirers are first conceived as delonging to me, and afterwards felt as admiring 


me (cf. § 217. note). For this reason the distinction between the subjective and 
the objective genitive is very unstable and constantly lost sight of (cf. § 197. a). 


§ 214.] Possessive Genttive, 207 


ae 214. The Subjective Genitive is used with a noun to 
denote (1) the Author or Owner, (2) the Source or the 
Material, (3) the Quality. 


1. Possessive Genitive 


a. 1. The Possessive Genitive denotes the author or 
owner: as, — 


libri CicerOnis, the books of (written by) Cicero, 
Alexandri equus, Alexander’s horse. 


; gy 2. For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjective 
is often used,— regularly for the possessive genitive of the personal 
pronouns (§§ Igo, 197. @): as,— 


liber meus, my dook, [Not liber mei.] 
aliena pericula, other men’s dangers. [But also alidrum.]} 
Sullana tempora, éhe dimes of Sulla, [Oftener Sullae.] 


é. The noun limited is understood in a few expressions: as, — 


ad Castoris [aedes], ¢o she [temple] of Castor. 
Hectoris Andromache (Ain. iii. 319), Hector’s [wife] Andromache. 
Flaccus Claudi, Alaccus [slave] of Claudius. 


¢. The possessive genitive is often in the predicate, connected with 
its noun by a verb: as, — 


haec domus est patris mei, “his house is my father’s. 

tutélae nostrae [eos] duximus (Liv.), we held them [to be] in our protec- 
tion. 

compendi facere, /o save (make of saving). 

lucri facere, fo get the benefit of (make of profit). 

iam me Pompéi totum esse scis (Fam. ii. 13), you know [am now all for 
Pompey (all Pompey’s). 


REMARK. — These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in § 213 
that a predicate noun bears to an appositive (§§ 184, 185). 


da. An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited 
by a genitive in the predicate: as, — 


neque sui itidici [erat] decernere (B. C. i. 35), zor was it for his judg- 
ment to decide (nor did it belong to his judgment). 

ciiusvis hominis est errare (Cic.), 7/ 7s any man’s [liability] 40 err. 

negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut in convivid virdrum accumberent muli- 
erés (Ver. ii.i.66), he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for 
women to appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men. 


208 Syntax: Construction of Cases.  [§§ 214, 215, 


timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 115), 2¢ és for the coward to wish for 


death, 

stulti erat sperare, suadere impudentis (Phil. ii. 23), z¢ was folly to hope, 
effrontery to urge (it was the part of a fool, etc.). 

sapientis (not sapiéns) est pauca loqui, z¢ zs wise (the part.of a wise man) 
to say little. 


REMARK. — This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension 
instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples), 


NoTE.—A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive in 


y 
Y 
\ 
AN 
™ this construction, and mst be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun: as,— 
! mentiri non est meum (not met), z¢ zs not for me to lie. 
N 
| 
NY 


himanum (for hominis) est errare, 7¢ 7s man’s nature to err (to err is 
human). 


2. Genitive of Material. 


e. The genitive may denote the Substance or Material 
of which a thing consists (compare §§ 216, 244): as, — 


talentum auri, @ ¢alent of gold. 
flumina lactis, r7vers of milk. 


NOTE, — This is strictly a genitive of source (cf.ex aur6d factum, made [out] 
_ of gold, § 244. ¢). 


f- A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in appo- 


e 


sition (§ 183): as,— J pee oa 
i yaw 
nomen insaniae (/ov nomen insania), the word madness. . 


oppidum Antiochiae (/or oppidum Antiochia, the regular form), the city 
of Antioch. [A very wide use of this genitive, cf. ¢.] 


erg6, decause of ; and the indeclinable instar, /zke; also with pridié, 
» the day before; postridié, the day after; tenus, as far as, see § 
nt 223. @. 

: h. For the genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive, see § 298 


. 3. Genitive of Quality. 
x 215. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only 
> =when the quality is modified by an adjective: as, ~ 


“vir summae virtutis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir virtitis ] 
magnae est deliberationis, z2¢ 7s ax affair of great deliberation. 
magni formica labGris, #he ant [a creature] of great toil. 
ille autem sui itidici (Nep. Att. 9), dat he [a man] of independent (his 
own) sudgment. 


OO Oe 


. g. For the genitive with the ablatives causa, gratia, for the sake of; 


pair 


eS 


§§ 215, 216.] Partitive Genitive. 209 


NOTE.— Compare Ablative of Quality ({ 251). In expressions of quality, the 
genitive or the ablative may often be used indifferently: as, praestanti prii- 
dentia vir, a man of surpassing wisdom; MAXimi animi homd (Cic.), a 
man of the greatest courage. But in general the Genitive is thus used rather of 
essential, the Ablative of special or incedental characteristics, ‘The Genitive of 
Quality was no doubt originally sudective, 


a. The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases 6ius 
modi, ciiius modi (equivalent to talis, such; qualis, of what sort). 

4. The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define meas- 
ures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure): as,— 


fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth]. 
murus sedecim pedum, @ wall of sixteen feet [high]. 


c. For Genitives of Quality used to express indefinite value, see 
§ 252. 2. | 


4. Partitive Genitive. 


216. Words denoting a Part are followed by the geni- 
tive of the Whole to which the part belongs. 

a.. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are — 

1, Nouns or Pronouns: as, — 


pars militum, part of the soldiers, 
quis nostrum, which of us (cf. e, below)? 
nihil erat reliqui, éhere was nothing left. 


' 2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words 
like alius, etc.: as, — 


alter consulum, ove of the [two] consuls, 

unus tribunorum, ove of the tribunes (cf. ¢, below). 

plirimum totius Galliae equitatu valet (B. G. v. 3), és strongest in cavalry 
of all Gaul. 

octavus sapientum (Hor.), che eighth wise man (eighth of the wise men). 

Hispanorum alii vigilant alii student, of the Spaniards some are on the 
watch, others are eager. 

maior fratrum, ¢he elder of the brothers. 

animalium fortiora, the stronger [of] animals. 


3. Neuter adjectives and pronouns, used as nouns: as, — 


tantum spati, so much [of] space. 

aliquid nummorum, a few pence (something of coins). 
id loci (ov locorum), that spot of ground. 

id temporis, at that time (§ 240. 6). 

plana urbis, the level parts of the town. 

quid novi, what news (what of new)? 


210 Syntax: Construction of Cases. i$ 216. 


REMARK.— The genitive of adjectives of the third declension is rarely used 
partitively. Thus— 
_nihil novi (gen.), zothing new ; but ) 
nihil memorabile (nom.), nothing worth mention. [Not nihil memo. 
rabilis. | ; 
4. Adverbs, especially of Quantity and Place: as, — 


satis pecuniae, money enough (enough of money). 

parum oti, z0¢ much ease (too little of ease). 

inde loci, zext in order (thence of place). 

tum temporis, a¢ that point of time (then of time). 

e0 miseriarum (Sall.), 4o chat [pitch] of mzsery. 

ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world are we (where of nations) ? 


4. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive after 
adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case: as, — 


sequimur te sancte deorum (Ain. iv. 576), we follow thee, O holy deity. 
[For sancte deus. ] 

nigrae lanarum (Plin. H. N. viii. 193), d/ack wools. [For nigrae lanae.] 

éelécti iuvenum (Liv. xxx. 9), chosen youths. [For élécti iuvenés. | 

cunctds hominum (Ov.), a// men. [For cinctds hominés, coinpare ¢.] 


¢. Cardinal numerals regularly take the Ablative with 6 (ex) or dé 
instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quidam commonly, and 
other words occasionally: as, — 


nus ex tribunis, ove of the tribunes. [But also, inus tribindrum.] 
minumus ex illis (Jug. 11), che youngest of them. 

medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three. 

quidam ex militibus, certain of the soldiers. 

hominem de comitibus meis, a man of my companions. 


d. Uterque, doth (properly cach), and quisque, each, with Nouns 
are used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns always take a 
partitive genitive: as, — 

uterque consul, doth the consuls; but, uterque nostrim, both of us. 

unus quisque vostrim, each one of you. 


é. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any thing, 
take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So also words 
denoting a part when oly that part is thought of. Thus, — 


nos omnes, a// of us (we all). [Not omnés nostrim. ] 

quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there ? 

cave inimicos qui multi sunt, beware of your enemies, who are many. 
multi milites, many of the soldiers. 

nemo Romanus, ot one Roman. 


§§ 217, 218. | a Objective Genttive. 21 < 
yx 5. Objective Genitive. 

The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, 
and Verbs. 

x, 217. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the 
genitive of the object : as, — 

desiderium oti, longing for rest. 

vacatio muneris, relief from duty. 

gratia benefici, gratitude for kindness. 

fuga malorum, vefuge from disaster. 

precatio deorum, prayer to the gods. 

contentio honorum, s¢rugele for office. 

opinio virtutis, reputation for valor. 

NOTE. — This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive Gen- 
itive). Thus in the phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Cesar, the hate in a passive 
sense delongs to Czesar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the odject of it, 
as hate (cf. § 213. note). Hence the expression of such ideas often varies; see a 
and c, below. 

a. The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive or 
other derivative adjective (see § 197. a. 2): as, — 

mea invidia, my unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). 

meus laudator, my eulogist (one who praises me). 

caedes Clodiana (Cic.), the murder of Clodius (the Clodian murder r). 

metus hostilis (Jug. 41), fear of the enemy (hostile fear). 

NOTE. — These possessives really represent possessive genitives (see note above), 

b. Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already limited 
by another genitive: as, — 

animi multarum rérum percursio (Tusc. iv. 31), the mind’s traversing of 

many things. 

c. A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objective 
genitive: as,— 

odium in Caesarem, hate of Cesar. (Cf. odium Caesaris, note above. } 

merita erga meé (Cic.), services to me. 

auxilium adversus inimicos (id.), help against enemies. 

impetus in mé (id.), a/ack on me. 

excéssus é€ vita (id.), departure from life. [Also, excéssus vitae, Cic.] 

NOTE. — So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. § 226. 4): as, — 

longo bello materia (Tac. H. i. 89), resources for a long war. 


II. GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. == 
218. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern 
the objective genitive. 





1 As we say, “ The Nathan murder.” 


Se: Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 218. 


‘These are called Relative Adjectives (adiecttva relativa) or Trans- 
itive Adjectives, and include the following : — 

chee es Adjectives denoting desive, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, 

sharing, guilt, and their opposites: as, — 


avidus laudis, greedy of praise. 

fastidiosus litterarum, disdaining letters. 

juris peritus, séz//ed in law. [So also the ablative, itire, cf. § 253.] 
sui oblitus, forgetful of himself. 

rationis et Orationis expertes (Off. i. 50), devoid of sense and speech. 
rei militaris imperitus, wsskilled in military science. 

vostri memor, #zndful of you. 

plenus fidei, /u// of good faith. 

egenus omnis spel, destitute of all hope. 

poténs tempestatum, Zaving sway over the storms. 

impotens irae, ungovernable in anger. 

particeps coniurationis, sharing in the conspiracy. 

affinis rei capitalis, zzvolved in a capital crime. 

insons culpae, 7znocent of guilt. 


6. Verbals in -Ax (8 164.7); also participles in -ns when used as 
adjectives, z.e. to denote a dsPosition and not a particular act: as, — 


iustum et tenacem propositi virum (Hor. Od. iii. 3), @ man just and stead: 
fast to his purpose. 

circus capax populi (Ov.), @ circus big enough to hold the people. 

cibi vinique capacissimus (Liv.), a very great eater and drinker (very able 
to contain food and wine). 

si quem tui amantiorem cognovisti (Q. Fr. i. 1), ¢f you have become ac- 
quainted with any one more fond of you. 

multitudo insoléns belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war. 

sitiens sanguinis, ¢hirsting for blood (7.e. habitually bloodthirsty). 


NOTE 1.—Participles in -ns, when used as farticiples, take the case regularly 
governed by the verb to which they belong: as, — 
Tiberius sitiens sanguinem (Tac.), 72berzus [then] thirsting for blood. 


NOTE 2.— Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see 
note 1) even when they express a dzsposttion or character: as,— 
virtus quam alii ipsam temperantiam dicunt esse? alii obtemperantem tem- 
perantiae praeceptis et eam subsequentem (Tuscul. iv. 30), observant 
of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her. 


¢. The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any 
adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists 
(Genitive of Specification): as, — 

callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 31), sk2lled in soldiership. 

pauper aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. 11), scant of water. 

notus animi paterni (id. ii. 2. 6), famed for a paternal spirit. 


§§ 218, 219.} Genitive with Verbs. 21 3 


fessi rerum (Ain. i. 178), weary of toi?. 
integer vitae scelerisque purus (Hor.), upright in life, and unstained by 
guilt. 

NOTE 1.— For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see § 253. 

NOTE 2.— The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construc- 
tion with relative adjectives. Thus Callidus denotes knowledge ; pauper, want; 
purus, iznocence ; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes under a. 

REMARK. — Adjectives of feeding are followed by the apparent genitive animi 
(really locative, cf. § 223. c): as,— 

aeger animi, stck at heart. 

confusus animi, disturbed in spirit, 
So by imitation — 

sanus mentis et animi (Plaut. Trin. 454), sound in waits and heart. 

audax ingenii (late), do/d in disposition. 


d. For adjectives of likeness, etc., with the genlines apparently ob- 
jective, see § 234. d. 


III. GENITIVE WITH VERBS. oo 


The Objective Genitive is used with some verbs. 


A Remembering and Forgetting. 

219. Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting take the 
Genitive of the object when they are used of a continued 
state of mind, but the Accusative when used of a@ single 
act? as,— 

1. Genitive: — 

recordans superioris transmissi6nis (Att. iv. 19), vemembering your former 

crossing. 

animus meminit praeteritérum (Div. i. 63), he soul remembers the past. 

venit mihi in mentem illius diéi, / bethink me of that day (it comes into 

my mind of that day). 

obliviscere caedis atque incendidrum (Cat. i. 6), turn your mind from 

slaughter and conflagrations. 

nec unquam obliviscar illius noctis (Plancius 101), and J shall never for- 

gel that night. 

2. Accusative : — ; 

totam causam oblitus est (Bru. 217), he forgot the whole case. 

pueritiae memoriam recordari (Arch. 1), 40 recall the memory of childhood. 

a. The Accusative is almost always used of a person or thing re- 
membered by an eye-witness: as, — 

memineram Paullum (Lel. 9), 7 remembered Paulus. 


6. Recordor, recollect, recall, denotes a single act and js therefore 
almost always followed by the Accusative: as, ~ 


214 Syntax: Construction of Cases.  [§§ 219, 220. 


recordare cOnsénsum illum theatri (Phil. i. 30), recal? that unanimous 

agreement of the [audience in the] ¢heatre. 

recordamini omnis civilis dissénsidnés (Cat. iii. 24), recall all the civil 

wars. 

¢. Verbs of reminding take with the accusative of the person a 
genitive of the thing; except in the case of a neuter pronoun, which is 
put in the accusative (cf. § 238. 4). 

Catilina admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae (Sall. Cat. 

21), Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity. 

‘num illud monere té possum, / can remind you of this one thing. 

So admonesd, commoned, commonefaci6, commonefi6. But 
mone6 with the genitive is found only in late writers (cf. § 238. 4. 
note). 

NOTE.— All these verbs often take d6 with the ablative, and the accusative of 
nouns as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them: as,— 

saepius té admoned dé syngrapha Sittiana (Fam. viii. 4, 5), 7 remind you 

again and again of the bond of Sittius. 

officium vestrum ut vos malo cogatis commonerier (Plaut. Ps. 150), Zo de 

reminded of your duty. ; 


2. Charge and Penalty. 


X 220. Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting, 
take the genitive of the charge or penalty: as, — Z 
arguit me furti, Ze accuses me of theft. 
pecilatiis damnatus (peciiniae publicae damnatus) (Flac. 43), con- 
demned for embezzlement. 
vided non te absolutum esse improbitatis, sed illos damnatds esse caedis 
(Ver. ii. i. 72), 7 see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but that 
they were condemned for homicide. 
a. Peculiar. genitives, under this construction, are— 


capitis, as in damnare capitis, 20 sentence to death. 

maiestatis [laesae], /reason (crime against the dignity of the State). 

repetundarum [rerum], ex/ortion (lit. of an action for claiming back money 
wrongfully taken). 

voti, in damnatus o7 reus voti, dound [to the payment] of one’s vow; ie. 
successful in one’s effort. 

peciiniae (damnare, itidicare, see note under 3, below). 

dipli, etc., as in dipli condemnare, condemn to pay twofold. 

é. Other constructions for the charge or penalty are — 

1. The ablative of price: regularly of a definite amount of fine, and 

often of indefinite penalties (cf. § 252. note): as,— 

Frusinatés tertia parte agri damnati (Liv. x. 1), he people of Frusino con- 

demned [to forfeit] a third part of their land. 





§§ 220, 221.] Genitive with Verbs of Feeling. | 215 


vitia autem hominum atque fraudés damnis ignéminiis vinculis verbe- 
ribus exsiliis morte damnantur (De O.i.194), det the vices and crimes 
of men are punished with fines, dishonor, chains, scourging, exile, death. 

2. The ablative with dé, or the accusative with inter, in idiomatic 
expressions: as, — 

de alea, for gambling. 

dé ambitu, for bribery. 

inter sicarids, as an assassin (among the assassins), 

de vi et maiestatis damnati (Philip. 1, 21), convicted of assault and treason. 

3. The accusative with ad or in to express the penalty (daze): as, — 

ad mortem (Tac.), ¢9 death. ad (in) metalla, 40 the mines, 

NOTE.— The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by pectiniae 
damnare (Aul. Gell. xx. 1, 38), ¢0 condemn to pay moneygin a case of injury to the 
person; quantae peciiniae itidicati essent (id. xx. 1, 47), how much money 
they were adjudged to pay,in a mere suit for debt; cOnfessi aeris ic débiti 
itidic&ti (ibid.), adjudged to owe an admitted sum due.. These expressions show 
that the genitive of the penalty comes from the use of the genitive of value to express 
a sum of money due either as a debt or as a fine, Since in early civilizations all 
offences could be compounded by the payment of fines, the genitive came to be 
used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to the genitive of the 
actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a confusion between 
crime and penalty (cf. Eng. guilty of death). 

3. Verbs of Feeling. 


221. Many verbs of Feeling take the genitive of the 
object which excites the feeling. Thus— 


a. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miseréscé, are followed by the 
genitive: as, — 
miseréscite régis (Ain. viii. 573), pity the king. 
miserére animi non digna ferentis (id. ii. 144), pity @ soul that endures un- 
worthy things. 
But miseror, commiseror, Jewail, take the accusative: as, — 
communem condiciénem miserari (Murena 55), dewadl the common lot. 


é. The impersonals miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or 
pertaesum est), take the Genitive of the cause of the feeling and the 
Accusative of the Jerson affected: as, — 


hos hominés infamiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. i. 35), these 
men are neither ashamed nor weary of their dishonor, [Cf. tt repenteth 
him of the evit.] 

mé quidem miseret parietum ipsorum (Phil. ii. 69), for my part I pity the 
very walls, 

mé civitatis morum piget taedetque (Sall. Jug. 4), J am sick and disgusted 
with the ways of the state. 

decemvirérum vos pertaesum est (Liv. iii. 67), you became tired of the 
decemvirs. 


26 Syntax: Construction of Cases.  [8§ 221, 222. 


c. An infinitive, a clause, or the accusative (possibly nominative) of 
a neuter pronoun may be used with these impersonal verbs (except 
miseret) instead of the genitive of a noun: as, — 


mé paenitet haec fécisse, / repent of having done this. 
nihil quod paenitére possit (Cic.), zothing that may cause repentance, 


d. Miseret, etc., are sometimes used personally with a neuter pro- 
noun as subject: as, — . 
nonne te haec pudent (Ter. Ad.), is not these things shame you? 


4, Interest and Réfert. 
222. The impersonals interest and réfert take the geni- 
tive of the person*(rarely of the thing) affected: as, — 


Clodi intererat. Milonem perire (Mil. 56), 2¢ was the interest of Clodius 
that Milo should die. 

faciundum esse aliquid quod ill6rum magis quam sua retulisse videretur 
(Jug. 111), that something must be done which seemed to be more for . 
their interest than his own. 

video enim quid mea intersit, quid utriusque nostrum (Fam. vii. 23), for 7 
see what is for my good and for the good of us both. 


The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause. 
a. Instead of the Genitive of a Personal Pronoun the corresponding 
Possessive is uséd in the ablative singular feminine after interest or 
réfert: as, — : 
quid tua id refert? magni (Ter. Ph. 723), Zow does that concern you? 
much, [See also the last two examples above. ] 
vehementer intererat vestra qui patrés estis (Plin. Ep. iv. 13), 2 would be 
very much to your advantage, you who are fathers. 


6. The accusative with ad is used with interest and réfert to ex- 
press the thing with reference to which one is interested: as, — 


magni ad honodrem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. 1), 2¢ 7s of great consequence 
to our honor. 

réfert etiam ad fructts (Varr. R. R. i. 16, 6) it makes a difference as to 
the crop. 

NoTEe.— Very rarely the Person is expressed by ad and the Accusative, or 

(with réfert) by the Dative (probably a popular corruption) : as,— 

quid id ad mé aut ad meam rem refert (Plautus, Persa 513), what di/- 
ference does that make to me or to my interests ? 

quid referat intra natirae fines viventi (Hor. Sat.i. 1. 49), what difference 
does it make to me who live within the limits of natural desire ? 

So, nil réferre dédecori (Tac. Ann. xv. 65), chad i¢ makes no difference as 
to the disgrace. 


§ 223.| Genitive with Verbs of Plenty, etc. 217 


5. Verbs of Plenty and Want. 


223. Some verbs of Plenty and Want govern the geni. 
tive: as,— | 
quid est quod défénsidnis indigeat? (Rosc. Am. 34), wat zs there that 


needs defence ? 
satagit rérum suarum, he has his hands full with his own affairs. 


NOTE. — But verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see 


$§ 243. a, 248. ¢.), except eged, indiged, satags6. 


6. Other Verbs. 


a. The genitive sometimes follows potior, get Sossession of; as 
always in the phrase potiri rérum, Zo be master of affairs. ‘Thus,— 
illius régni potiri (Fam. i. 7, 5), 20 decome master of that kingdom. 
Cleanthes solem dominari et rérum potiri putat (Acad. ii. 126), Cleanthes 
thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe. 
But potior usually takes the ablative (see § 249). 


6. Some other verbs rarely take the Genitive: — 
1. By analogy with those mentioned in § 221: as, — 


neque huius sis veritus féminae primariae (Ter. Ph. 971), and you had 
no respect for this highborn lady. 


2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive: as, — 


fastidit mei (Plaut. Aul. 245), Ze disdains me. [Cf. fastididsus.] 
studet tui (quoted N. D. iii. 72), e ts zealous for you. [Cf. studidsus. } 


3. In imitation of the Greek: as,— 


iustitiaene prius mirer, belline labdrum (Ain. xi. 126), shall I rather 
admire [his] justice or his totls in war ? 

neque ille sepositi ciceris nec longae invidit avénae (Hor. Sat. ii. 6. 84), 
nor does he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parcus.] 

abstineto irarum (Hor. Od. iii. 27. 69), refrain from wrath (but cf. 
§§ 223, 243. Rem.). é 

labdrum deécipitur (Hor. Od. ii. 13. 38), Ze ts deguiled of his woes. 

nec sermonis fallébar (Plaut. Ep. 239), zor did J miss the conversation. 

mé laborum levas (Plaut. Rud. 247), you relieve me of my troubles. 


c. The apparent .Genitive animI (really Locative) is used with a 
few verbs of feeling and the like (cf. § 218. ¢. Rem.): as, — 
Antiph6 me excruciat animi (Ter. Ph. 187), Antipho tortures my mind 
(me in my mind). 
animi pendeo (PI. Merc. 127), 7 am in suspense. 
mé animi fallit (Lucr. i. 922), my mind deceives me. 
So, by analogy, desipiebam mentis (Pl. Epid. 138), 7 was out of my head, 


a 


218 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 223. 


IV. PECULIAR GENITIVES. 


d. A genitive occurs rarely in Exclamations, in imitation of the 


Greek (Genitive of Exclamation): as, — 


di immortalés, mercimoni lepidi (Plaut. Most. 912), good heavens ! what a 
charming bargain. . 

foederis heu taciti (Prop. iv. 7. 21), alas for the unspoken agreement. 

é. The genitive is often used with the ablatives causa,! gratia, for 
the sake of ; exgd, because of; and the indeclinable instar, /ke; also 
with pridié, the day before; postridié, the day after; tenus, as far 
as: as,— 

honoris causa, with due respect (for the sake of honor). 

verbi gratia, for example. 

éius legis ergo, on account of this law. 

equus instar montis (AEn. ii. 15), @ horse like (the image of) @ mountain. 

laterum tenus (Ain. x. 210), as far as the sides. 

NoTE 1.— Of these the genitive with causa is like that in nOmen insaniae 


(§ 214.7). The others are of various origin. 
NOTE 2.—In prose of the Republican Period pridié and postridié are thus 


“used only in the expressions pridié (postridi6é) 6ius diéi, the day defore (after) 


that (cf. the eve, the morrow of that day), Tacitus uses the construction with other 
words: as, postridié insidiarum, the day after the plot, For the accusative, see 
§ 261.a, Tenus takes also the ablative (} 260. ¢). 


Il.— DATIVE. 


NoTE.— The Dative seems to be closely akin to the Locative (cf. ofkot, at home, 
with of, to a house), and must have had the primary meaning of ¢o or éowards, 
But this local meaning appears in Latin only in the poets (§ 225. 4. 3) and in 
some adverbial forms (as e6, ill6, thither, cf. § 148. note, ‘y). 

In Latin the Dative has two classes of derived meanings : — 

1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly 
affected by it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or 
receiving it consciously or actively. Thus in dedit puero librum, 4e gave the 
boy a book, or f6cit mihi initiriam, te did me a wrong, there is an idea of the 
boy receiving the book, and of my feeling the wrong. Uence expressions denoting 
persons or things with personal attributes are more likely to be in the dative than 
those denoting mere things.2 See examples under § 224. 

This difference between the Accusative and the Dative (z.e. between the Direct 
and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied in the verb or 
existing in the mind of the writer. Hence verbs of similar meaning (to an English 
mind) often differ in the case of their object (see § 227. a and 4). 

‘2, The Dative is used to express the purfgose of an action or that for which it 
serves (see § 233). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or 
those implying an action, ; 





1 Compare the English for his sake, on my account. 
2 So in Spanish the dative is used whenever a Zerson is the object of an action; 
yo veo al hombre, I see [to] the man, 


§§ 224, 225.| Dative with Transitives. 219 


These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are 
occasionally confounded, as in § 234 (cf. especially § 234. 4). 
The uses of the Dative, arranged practically, are the following : — 


1. As INDIRECT OBJECT | 1. With Transitives-(§ 225). 
(general use) : 2. With Intransitives (§§ 226-28, 230). 
1. Of Possession (with esse) (§ 231). 
: : ‘ 2. Of Agency (with Gerundive) (§ 232). 
= nT acetted idiomistte 3. Of Sot End (predicate use) (§ 233). 
Uses: 4. Of Fitness, etc. (with Adjectives) (§ 234). 
5. Of Reference (dativus commodz) ($$ 235, 236). 


224. The Dative is used of the object zzdtrectly affected 
by an action. | 


This is called the Indirect Object (§ 177). It is usually denoted in 
English by the Objective with ¢o or for. Thus, — 


dat librum puero, he gives a book to the boy, 

cédite tempori, yield ¢o the occasion. 

provincia CicerOni obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero, 
inimicis non credimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies. 
civitatis saluti consulite, consult for the safety of the State. 
sic mihi vidétur, so z¢ seems to me. 

indicavit mihi Pansa, Pansa has made known to me. 

hoc tibi spondeo, J promise [to] you this. 


1. Indirect Object with Transitives. 


225. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accu- 
sative of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb 
whose meaning allows (see § 177) : as, — 

do tibi librum, 7 give you a book. 

illud tibi affirmo (Fam. i. 7), chis J assure you. 

commendo tibi eius omnia negotia (Fam. i. 3), J put all his affairs in 

your hands, 

dabis profectd misericordiae quod iracundiae negavisti (Dei. 40), you 

will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath. 

litteras 4 té mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam. ii. 17), delivered to me a letter. 


a. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use (§ 177. 
note). These take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the 
Dative alone: as, — 

hanc pecuniam tibi credo, 7 ¢rust this money to you. [Transitive.]} 

in hac re tibi credo, 7 ¢rust you in this, [Intransitive.] 

4. Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction between 
_ the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative of the End of 

Motion (§ 258. 6), Thus— ~ 


220 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 225, 


1. Some verbs take the Accusative (with or without a preposition) 


instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of Motion prevails 
(§ 258): as, — 


litteras quas ad Pompéium scripsi ne iii. 8), che letter which I have writ- 
ten [and sent] 4o Pompey. [Cf. non quo haberem quod tibi scriberem 
(Att. iv. 4), not that I had anything to write to you. | 

litterae extemplO Romam scriptae (Liv. xli. 16), @ letter was ienittlai> 
written [and sent] 4o Rome. 

hostés in fugam dat (B. G. v. 51), Ze puts the enemy to flight. [Cf. ut mé 
dem fugae (Att. vii. 23), 2o cake to flight.] 

cur saepius ad mé litteras dedissés (Fam. iv. 4), why you had several times 
written letters [addressed] ¢o me. 

nullas eis praeterquam ad té et ad Briitum dedi litteras (id. iii. 7), 7 Aave 
given to them (the messengers) 10 letters except (addressed) Zo you, etc. 

omnés rem ad Pompéium deferri volunt (id. i.1), ad? wish the matter to 
be put in the hands of Pompey. 

an iterum se reddat in arma (/En. x. 684), or should throw himself again 
into the fight (only poetic). 


2. On the other hand, many verbs usually followed by the Accusative 


with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion is merged in 
some other idea: as, — 


nec quicquam quod non mihi Caesar détulerit (Fam. iv. 13), awd nothing 
which Cesar did not communicate to me. 

mihi litteras mittere (Fam. vii. 12), éo send me a letter. 

eum librum tibi misi (id. vii. 19), 7 sent you that book. 

Catodnem tuum mihi mitte (id. vii. 24), send me your Cato. 

ciirés ut mihi vehantur (id. viii. 4, 5), ake care that they be conveyed to me. 

cum alius alii subsidium ferrent (B.G. ii. 26), while one lent aid to another. 

quibus (copiis rex Deiotarus) imperatoribus nostris auxilia mitteret (Deiot. 
22), with which (troops) king D. might send FELL ORETM ORES to our 
generals. 


3. In poetry the End of Motion is often expressed by the dative 


(see § 258. note I). 


c. For the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing after 


verbs of threatening and the like, see § 227. /. 


d. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and the 


Accusative of the thing, er (in a different sense) the Accusative of the 
person and the Ablative of the thing: as, — 


¢ 


donat corénas suis, he presents wreaths to his men; or, 

donat suds coronis, he presents his men with wreaths, 

vincula exuere sibi (Ov. M. vii. 772), ¢o shake off the leash (from himself). 
omnés armis exuit (B. G. v. 51), he stripped them all of their arms. 

aram sanguine adspergere (N. D. iii. 88), 20 sprinkle the altar with blood. 
arae sancuinem adspergere, 4o sprinkle blood upon the altar, 


§§ 225, 226.] Dative with Intransttives. 221 


Such are d6n6, imperti6, induG, exu6, adspergé, inspergé, 
circumd6, circumfund6, prohibe6, intercliidd, and in poetry 
accing6, implic6, and similar verbs. 

NoTE 1.—Interdic6, fordid, takes either (1) the dative of the person and the 
accusative of the thing, or (2) the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing: 
as,— 

interdixit histridnibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7), he forbade the actors [to 

appear on] ¢he stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors). [Cf. in- 
terdictum est mare Antiati populo (Liv. viii. 14), che sea was forbidden 
to the people of Antium.] 

féminis (dat.) purpurae isi interdicemus (Liv. xxxiv. 7), shall we forbid 

women the wearing of purple ? 

aqua et igni alicui interdicere, to forbid the use of fire and water. 


NOTE 2.— The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs 
of preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Abla- 
tive. Interclid6 and arceod sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in 
prose: as,— 

hisce omnis aditiis ad Sullam interclidere (Rosc. Amer. 110), 40 shut 

these men off from all access to Sulla (close to them every approach). 
[Cf. uti frimentd commeatiique Caesarem intercluderet (B. G. i. 48). 
te shut Cesar off from grain and supplies.) 

hunc (oestrum) arcebis pecori (Georg. iii. 154), you shall keep this away 

from the flock. (Cf. illum arcuit Gallia (Phil. v. 37), Ae excluded him 
from Gaul.) 

solstitium pecori defendite (Ecl. vii. 47), 2eep the summer heat from the 

frock. 


e. Verbs which in the active voice take the accusative and dative 
retain the dative when used in the passive: as, — 


haec nobis nuntiantur, éhese things are told us. [Active: haee [quidam] 
nobis nintiat.} 

Crass0 divitiae non invidentur, Crassus ts not envied for his wealth. [ Active: 
Crass6 divitias non invidet. ] 

decem talenta oppidanis imperantur, tex ¢alents are exacted of the towns- 
people. (Active: imperat oppidanis decem talenta. | 


2. Indirect Object with Intransitives. 


226. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used 
with any Intransitive verb whose meaning allows: as, — 


cédant arma togae (Phil. ii. 20), Zet arms give place to the gown. 
Caesari respondet, he replies to Ceasar, 

Caesari respondétur, Cesar is replied to (see § 230). 

crédimus niintid, we believe the messenger. 

nuntid créditur, she messenger is believed, 


323 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§ 226, 227. 


respondi maximis criminibus (Phil. ii. 36), 7 have answered the heaviest 
charges. 

ut ita cuique eveniat (id. 119), that it may so turn out to each. 

NOTE 1.—JIntransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, 
therefore, in these cases stands alone (but cf. § 225. a). 

NOTE 2.— Céd6, yie/d, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with 
the Dative of the person: as, — 

cédere alicui posséssiGne hortorum (Milon. 75), 2o give up to one the 

possession of a garden. 

a. Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or 
a copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a kind 
of indirect object (cf. § 235): as, — 

auctor esse alicui, Zo advise or instigate one (cf. persuaded). 

quis huic rei testis est (Quinc. 37), who testifies (is witness) to this fact? 

is finis populatidnibus fuit (Liv. ii. 30), chis put an end to the raids. 

6. The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a sense 
approaching that of the genitive (cf. §§ 227. d, 235. a): as, — 

legatus Caesari, a ieutenant to Cesar (i.e. a man assigned to Czesar). 

heres fratri suo, Azs brother's heir (heir to his brother). 

ministri sceleribus, agents of crime. 


NOTE. — The cases in a and 4 differ from the constructions of § 227. note 2, 
and § 235 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word 
to which it serves as an indirect object. 


3. Dative with Special Verbs. 


Many verbs of apparently transitive meaning in English correspond 
to verbs intransitive in Latin. Thus: — 


227. Most verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, 
and their contraries; also to believe, persuade, command, 
obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare,' take 
the dative: as. — 

cur mihi invidés, why do you envy me? 

mihi parcit atque ignoscit, e spares and pardons me. 

ignosce patrio dolori (Liv. iii. 48), excuse a father’s grief. 

sontibus opitulari poteram (Fam. iv. 13), / was able to help the guilty, 

non omnibus servi6 (Att. xiii. 49), 7am not a servant to every man. 

cum ceteris tum mihi ipsi displiced (Fam. iv. 13), Z dissatisfy other 
people and myself too. 





1 These include, among others, the following: adversor, créd6, faved, 
fid6, ign6scé, imper6, invideG, irascor, stiscénse6, resist6, noced, 
parcé, pared, placed, servid, studed, suaded (persuaded), tempers, 
(obtemperG), dict6 audiéns sum. 


2 a 


§ 227.| Dative with Special Verbs. 223 


non parcam operae (id. xiii. 27), J will spare no pains. 

sic mihi persuasi (Cat. M. 78), so 7 have persuaded myself. 

mihi Fabius igndscere débebit si minus eius famae parcere vidébor quam 

ante consului (Tull. 3), fadius will have to pardon me if I seem to~ 
spare his reputation less than, etc. 

huic legioni Caesar confidebat maxime (B. G. i. 40), i this legion Caesar 

trusted most, 

NOTE 1.—In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning, 
Thus: invid6re, ¢o exvy, was originally ¢o dook askance at one; Servire is to dea 
slave to; SU&d6re is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) ¢o one. 

NOTE 2.—Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like 
verbs of similar meaning. Such are~— 

praesto esse, be on hand (cf. adesse). 

morem gerere, Aumor (cf. mbrigerari). 

gratum facere, do a favor (cf. gratificari). 

dicto audiens esse, be obedient (cf. oboedire). 

cui fidem habebat (B.G.i. 19), 2 whom he had confidence (cf. c6nfidébat). . 

So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such are— 

bene (male, pulchre, aegré, etc.) esse, 40 be well (él, ee off: 

iniuriam facere, do tnzustice to. 

diem dicere, bring ¢o trial (name a day for, etc.). 

agere gratias, Zo express one’s thanks. 

habere gratiam, éo feel thankful. 

referre gratiam, 40 repay a favor. 

opus esse, de mecessary. 

damnum dare, t#flict am inpury. 

acceptum (expénsum) ferre (esse), ¢o credit (charge). 

honorem habere, fo pay honor to. 

a. Some verbs apparently of the same ee take the Accusative. 

Such are iuv6, adiuvé, “%e/p; laedd, injure; iubeb, order; 
déficid, fail; délectd, please. Thus, ~ 

hic pulvis oculum meum laedit, his dust hurts my eye. [Cf. multa oculis 

nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes.) 

6. Some verbs are used ¢ransztively with the Accusative or zuztransz- 
tevely with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning. 

Such are adiilor (generally accusative), aemulor (rarely dative), 
comitor, déspér6, praestd6lor, medeor, medicor. Thus, — 

adulatus est Antonio (Nep. Att. 8), Ze flattered Antony. 

adulari Nerénem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 19), 40 flatter Nero. 

¢. Some verbs are used ¢vansitively with the Accusative or ixtransz- 
tively with the Dative with a difference of meaning.} 





1See Lexicon under conveni6, cupi6, Insist6, maned, praeverté, 
recipi10, rentinti6, solvG, succéd6, caved, 


224 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 227. 


parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 85), they consult for a part of the citizens. 

cum té consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), when J had consulted you. 

metueéns pueris (Plaut. Am. 1113), anxious for the children, 

nec metuunt deds (Ter. Hec. 772), they fear not even the gods. [So also 
timed. ] 

prospicite patriae (Cat. iv. 3), Zave regard for the State. 

prospicere sédem senectuti (Liv.iv. 49), 0 provide a habitation for old age 
[So also provided. ] 

NoTE. — Fid6 and cénfid6, trust, take either the Dative or the Ablative: as, — 

legiOnis decimae cui quam maxime confidebat (B. G.i. 42), of the denth 
legion, in which he had the utmost confidence. 

multum natira loci confidebant (B.G.i.9), they had great confidence in 
the strength of their position (the nature of the place). 


d. Some verbal nouns—as Insidiae, ambush; invidia, envy — 
take the dative like the verbs from which they are derived: as, — 
invidia consuli (Sall.), 2//-w7l? against the consul (cf. invided). 
obtemperatid légibus (Leg. i. 42), obedience to the laws (cf. obtempero). 
sibi ipsi respOnsio (De Or. iii. 54), az answer to himself (cf. responded). 


NOTE. — In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force 
of the noun and not on any complex idea (cf. § 226. a and 4). 


é. The Dative is also used: — 
1. With the impersonals libet (lubet), ez leases; licet, i zs 
allowed: as, — 


quod mihi maximé lubet (Fam. i. 8, 3), what most pleases me. 
quasi tibi non liceret (Fam. vi. 8), as if you were not permitted. 


2. With verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male: as, — 


mihi ipse numquam satisfacio (Fam. i. 1), 7 mever satisfy myself. 

optim6 vird maledicere (Deiot. 28), 0 speak ill of a most excellent man. 

pulchrum est benefacere reipiblicae (Sall. Cat. 3), z¢ zs @ glorious thing to 
benefit the State. 


NOTE.— These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt 
as such by the Romans. Thus:— 


satis officid med, satis illodrum voluntati qui a mé hoc petiverunt factum 
esse arbitrabor (Verres v. 130), that enough has been done for, etc. 


3. With the following: gratificor, gratulor, haered (rarely), nibé, 
permitt6, plaud6, prob6, studes6, supplicé, excell6: as, — 


haerentem capiti cordnam (Hor. S. i. 10), @ wreath clinging to the head. 
Pompéio sé gratificari putant (Fam. i. 1), they suppose they are doing 

Pompey a service. 
tibi permitto respondere (N. D. iii. 4), 7 give you leave to answer. 
gratulor tibi, mi Balbe (Fam. vi. 12), 7 congratulate you, my dear Balbus. 
mihi plaudo ipse domi (Hor. S. i. 1. 66), applaud myself at home. 


§§ 227, 228. | Dative with Compounds. 226 


cir tibi hdc n6n gratificer nescid (Fam. i. 10), why [should not gratify you 
in this I don’t know. 

cum inimici M. Fontei vébis ac popul6 Romano minentur, amici ac pro- 

_ pinqui supplicent vobis (Fonteius 35), while the enemies of M. Fon- 

teius are threatening you and the Roman people too, while his friends 
and relatives are beseeching you. 

ut voluerint populé supplicare (Leg. Agr. ii. 18), when they wished to 
make supplication to the people. 


NoTE.— Misce6 and iungd sometimes take the dative a: § 248. a. Rem.). 
Haere6 usually takes the ablative, with or without in, 


jf. Many verbs ordinarily intransitive often have an Accusative of the 
direct object along with the Dative of the indirect (cf. § 225. @): as, — 


cui cum rex crucem minitaretur (Tus. i. 102), when the king threatened ~ 
him with the cross. 

imperat oppidanis decem talenta, he exacts of the townspeople ten talents. 

omnia sibi i ignoscere (Vell. ii. 30), zo pardon one’s self everything. 

Crass6 divitias non invideo, J do not envy Crassus his wealth. 


4. Dative with Compounds. 


228. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, 
inter, ob, post, prae, prd, sub, super, and some with circum, 
are followed by the dative of the indirect object: as, — 


neque enim adsentior eis (Lael. 13), for 7 do not agree with them. 

tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9), ¢¢ 2s @ point of skill to yield to the 
weather, 

omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed praefuit (id.i. 6), Ze xot only had 
a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them. 

quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Of.i.105), so far as man’s 
nature is superior to brutes. 

nec unquam succumbet inimicis (Dei. 36), Ze will never yield to his foes. 

illis libellis nomen suum inscribunt (Arch. 26), hey put their own name 
to those papers. 

cur mihi te offers, ac meis commodis officis et obstas (Rose. A. 112), whp 
do you offer yourself to-me, and then hinder and withstand my ad- 
vantage ? 


NOTE 1.—In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but on 
the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence if the acquired meaning 
is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction of the simple 
verb remains or some different construction arises, Thus in convocat suds, 
he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so modified as to make an indi- 
rect object appropriate, So hominem interficere, to make way with a man 
(kill him). But in praeficere imperat6rem bell5, to puta man as commander- 
in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the composition is suited to an. 
indirect object (see also a and ¢, and § 237. @). 


226 Syntax: Construction of Cases.  |§§ 228, 229. 


NOTE 2.— Some of these verbs being originally transitive take also a direct 
object: as, né offeramus n6s periculis (Off. i. 83), that we may not expose our- 


selves to perils, 
NOTE 3.— The construction of § 228 is not different in its nature from that of 
§§ 225 and 226; but the compound verbs make a convenient group. 


a. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired 
a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. § 237. Z):1 as,— 
nos oppugnat (Fam. i. 1), 2e opposes us. 
quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi (Phil. xii. 25), who would dare 
encounter a man well attended ? 
minus obire (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty. 


&. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take 
_ the dative: as, — 
si ille obvius eI futurus non erat (Mil. 47), ifhe was not intending to get 
in his way. 
mihi obviam venisti (Fam. ii. 16), you came to meet me. 
c. When Jlace or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs mentioned 
in § 228 regularly take a noun with a preposition, instead of the dative: as, 


in visceribus inhaerere (Tuscul. iv. 24), ¢¢ remains fixed in the vitals. 

homini conitncto mécum (Tullius 4), 70 @ man united to me. 

convenit mihi cum adversario (Tullius 23), my adversary and I agree (it 
agrees to me with my adversary). 

‘eum hée concurrit ipse Eumenés (Nep. Eum. 4,1), with him Eumenes 
himself engages in combat (runs together). 

quae 4 céterarum gentium more dissentiunt (Fonteius 30), which differ 
Jrom the custom of all other nations. 

inserite oculds in ciriam (Fonteius 43), fix your eyes on the senate-house. 

ignis qui est ob 6s offusus (Univ. 49), the fire which is diffused before the sight. 

obicitur contra istorum impetiis Macedonia (Fonteius 44), Macedonia is 
set to withstand their attacks. [Cf. si quis vobis error obiectus (Cec. 
5), f any mistake has been caused you. se iniecturos vObis causam 
deliberandi (Caecina 4), that they would give you occasion for con- 
sidering. } 

in segetem flamma incidit (Ain. ii. 304), the fire falls upon the standing corn. 

NOTE, — But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often 

in the same word in the samesense. The dictionary must be consulted for each verb. 


229. Many verbs of taking away? and the like take the 
Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of 
Separation (§ 243) :? as, — 





1Such verbs are aggredior, aded, antec6éd6, anteed, antegredior, 
convenié, ined, obeé, offends, oppiignsé, subed, praecédGé. 

2 The dative in these constructions represents the action as done to the object, 
and is thus more vivid than the ablative. 

8 Such verbs are compounds of ab, dé, ex, and a few of ad. 


3§ 229-31.] Dative with Compounds: 227 


mulieri anulum détraxit, he took a ring from the woman. 

bona mihi abstulisti, you have robbed me of my gains. 

vitam aduléscentibus vis aufert (C. M. 71), violence deprives young men of 
Life. 

nihil enim tibi détraxit senectiis (Fam. i. 5, b), for age has robbed you, etc. 

nec mihi hunc errdrem extorquéri vold (C. M. 85), zor dol wish this 
error wrested from me. 


a. The distinct idea of motion, —and, in general, names of ¢hzngs, — 
cequire the ablative with a preposition (§ 258. a): as, — 


illum ex periculd éripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of danger. 


&. Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing 
with a preposition are both used with the same verb: as, — 


victoriam éripi sibi € manibus, éhat victory should be wrested from his 
hands (cf. § 243. 4). 


c. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which 
would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially with 
verbs of contending (§ 248. 6): as, — 


contendis Homéro (Prop. i. 7, 3), you vie with Homer. [In prose: cum 
Homer#. | 

placitone etiam pugnabis amO6ri (En. iv. 38), w// you struggle even against 
a love that pleases you? 

tibi certat (Ecl. v. 8), vies with you. [técum.] 

differt sermoni (Hor. S. i. 4. 48), differs from prose. [& sermone, § 243.] 

solstitium pecori defendite (Ecl. vii. 47), fee the noontide heat from the 
flock. [& pecore. | 

lateri abdidit ensem (/En. ii. 553), buried the siahd in his side. [in latere, 
§ 260. a. ] 


[For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see § 225. 3. 3.] 


230. The passive of intransitive verbs that govern the 
dative can be used only zmpersonally (§ 146. d). Such 
verbs retain the dative in this use (cf. § 225. e). 


cui parci potuit (Liv. xxi. 12), who could be spared ? 

non modo non invidetur illi aetati verum etiam favetur (Off. ii. 45), shat 
age (youth) zs xot only not envied, but is even favored. 

tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the exigency of the occa- 
ston (the time). 


5. Dative of Possession. 


231. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to 
denote Possession: as, — 


228 Syntax: Construction of Cases.  [§§ 231, 232. 


homini cum ded similitido est (Cic.), man has a likeness to God (there is 

to man, etc.). 

quibus.opes niullae sunt (Sall, Cat. 37), [those] who have no wealth. 

est mihi domi pater (Ecl. iii. 33), 7 have a father at home. 

REMARK. — The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor ; 
the Dative, the fact of possession; as, liber est meus, the book is mine (and no 
one’s else) ; est mihi liber, / ave a 400k (among other things). The latter is 
the usual form to denote simple Jossession, since habed, have, generally signifies 
hold, often with some secondary meaning: as,— 

legionem quam secum habebat (B. G.i. 8), the legion which he kept with 

him. 

domitas habeére libidines (De Or.), 2o eep the passions under control. 

a. Compounds of esse take the dative (except abesse and posse) : 
as, — 

deest mihi pectinia, J lack money. 

quid mihi proderit? 7m what will it help me (what will it profit me) ? 

6. After n6men est, and similar expressions, the name is usually 
put in the dative by a kind of apposition with the Jerson: as, — 

cui Africand fuit coOgndmen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose (to whom) surname was 

Africanus. 

puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (Liv. i. 34), the name Egerius was 

given the boy from his poverty. 

c. The name may also be in iecaie with n6men; or in later 
Latin in the genitive (cf. § 214. f): 

cui nomen Arethisa (Ver. iv. 118), fe pagal called Arethusa (to which 

is the name Arethusa), 

puero nomen est Marcus (Marci), se REP name is Marcus (to the 

boy, etc.). 

Q. Metello Macedonici nomen inditum est (Vel. Pat. i, 11), co Q. Metellus 

the name of Macedonicus was given. 


6. Dative of the Agent. 


232. The Dative of the Agent is used with the gerun- 
dive, to denote the person on whom the necessity rests: 
any . 

haec vobis provincia est defendenda (Man. 14), this province ts for you to 

defend (to be defended by you). 

mihi est pugnandum, J have éo fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me; 

compare mihi est liber, 7 have a book, § 231. Rem.). 

NOTE.— This is the régular way of expressing the agent with the Second or ~ 
Passive Periphrastic Conjugation ({ 113. d.1). But when a dative is expressed 


governed by the verb itself, and rarely at other times, the agent is denoted by the 
Ablative with ab (§ 246) to avoid ambiguity; as, — 


§§ 232, 233.] Dative of the Agent. a 


quibus est 4 vobis c6nsulendum (Leg. Man. 6), for whom you must con- 
sult (for whom it must be consulted by you). 

rem ab omnibus vobis providendam (Rabir. 4), chat the matter must 
be attended to by all of you. 

(Cf. isti principés et sibi et céteris populi R6mani tiniversi auctoritati pa- 
rendum esse fateantur (Leg. Man. 64), Zet these leading men admit that 
both by them and by everybody else the authority of the Roman people 
as a whole must be obeyed. [Here there was no danger of ambiguity. ] 

a. The dative of the agent is common after Jerfect participles 

(especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare after other 
parts of the verb : as, — 

mihi déliberatum et constitiitum est (Leg. Ag. i. 25), 7 have deliberated 
and resolved (it has been deliberated by me). 

mihi rés tdta prdvisa est (Verres iv. 91), the matter has been fully pro- 
vided for by me. | 

sic dissimillimis bestolis comminiter cibus quaeritur (N. D. ii. 123), so 
by very different creatures food is sought in common. 


b. The dative of the agent is used by the poets and later writers 
after almost any passive verb: as, — 


neque cernitur Ulli (/En. i. 440), or ts seen by any. 
felix est dicta sordri (Ov. Fast. iii.), she was called happy by her sister. 


c. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used 
after videor, seem: as, — 


videtur mihi, z¢ seems (or seems good) ¢o me. 

dis aliter visum [est] (AEn. ii. 428), i¢ seemed otherwise to the gods. 

videor mihi perspicere ipsius animum (Fam. iv. 13), / seem (to myself) éo 
see the soul of the man himself. 


NOTE. — The verb probare, affrove (originally a mercantile word), takes a 
Dative of Reference ({ 235), which has become so firmly attached that it is retained 
with the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent: as, — 


haec sententia et illi et nobis probabatur (Fam. i. 7, 5), his view met both 
his approval and mine (was made acceptable both to him and to me). 

mihi égregie probata est oratio tua (Tuscul. iv. 8), your discourse was very 
satisfactory to me. 


7. Dative of the Purpose or End. 


233. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or 
End. 


This construction, once apparently general in its use, remains in only 
a few constructions. Thus — 


~ 


230 Syntax: Construction of Cases.  [§§ 233, 234 


a. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that for which a 
thing serves or which t# accomplishes (Dative of Service), often with 
another dative of the person or thing affected: as, — 

rei publicae cladi sunt (Jug. 85), chey are ruin to the State (for a disaster). 

magno isui nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), é¢ was of great service to our men 

(for great use). 

tertiam aciem nostris subsidi6 misit (id.i. 52), he send the third line as a 

relief lo our men. 

omnia deerant quae ad reficiendas naves erant fisui (id. iv. 29), a// things 

were wanting which were of use for repairing the ships. 

évenit facile quod dis cordi esset (Liv. i. 39), that came to pass easily which 

was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods). 

NOTE. — The word friigi used as an adjective is a dative of this kind: as,— 

cogis me dicere inimicum friigi (Cic.), you compel me to call my enemy honest. 

homines satis fortes et plane frigi (Verr. iii. 67), men brave enough ana 
thoroughly honest. 

(Cf. ero frugi bonae (Plaut. Pseud. 468), 7 wil/ be good for something.) 


6. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a 
few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry: as, — 


receptui canere, % sound a retreat. 
locum castris capere, ¢o select a site for a camp. 
optavit locum régnd (AEn. ili. 109), Ze chose a place for a kingdom. 


NoTE.— The construction of purpose or end is found in the dative of the 
Gerundive (§ 299. 4) and after Adjectives (§ 234). 
8. Dative with Adjectives. 
234. The dative is used after adjectives or adverbs, to 
denote that to which the given quality 1s directed, for which 
tt exists, or towards which it tends. 





1 The following characteristics have been observed in the use of the Predicate 
Dative (dative of Service): 1. the noun is semi-abstract; 2. it is so used only in the 
singular; 3. it is “used predicatively”; 4. generally with esse; 5, rarely qualified 
by an adjective; 6, or by a genitive or a phrase; 7. but few nouns are used in this 
way; 8. the use and its limitations appear to be governed by custom, not by any 
principle. It is common with about go nouns, and is found with 185inall. Of 
these G6n6, mfinerl, viti6, are not used with esse, The verbs with which it 
exists are habed, dG, dicd, diicé, p6né, vertd, with esse and its equivalents, 
as fieri, etc. The nouns most commonly found in this construction are, aditl- 
ment6, auxilid, cordi, crimini, cirae, damné, decori, dédecori, dinéd, 
exempl6, exiti6, fraudi (damage), honG6ri, indicié, invidiae, impediment6é, 
laudi, lidibri6d, mal6, morae, odi6, oneri, Grnadmenté, praedae; prae- 
sidi6, probr6, pudori, receptui, remedi6, saliti, subsidié6, terrérl 
vitid, voluptati, Gsui.— Roby’s Latin Grammar, ii. xxxvii. seq, 


§ 234.] Dative with Adjectives. 231 


a. The dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fitness, 
nearness, likeness, service, tnclination, and their opposites : as, — 


nihil est tam natirae aptum (Lzl. 17), zothing is so fitted to nature. 
nihil difficile amanti putd (Or. 33), 7 think nothing hard to a lover. 
pompae quam pugnae aptius (id. 42), fitter for a procession than for 
battle. 
rébus ipsis par et aequalis Gratid (id. 123), a@ speech equal and level with 
the subject. 
castris iddneum locum déligit (B. G. i. 49), a suztable place for a camp. 
tribiini nobis sunt amici (Q. Fr. i. 2), the tribunes are friendly to us. 
cupidis rérum talium odidsum fortasse et molestum est carére (Cat. 
Major 47), to those who are desirous of such things, it is perhaps hate- 
ful and disagreeable to do without them. 
nec eum... aut invisum ded aut negléctum 4 deo itidicémus (Nat. D. 
ii. 167), and-let us not deem him either oad to God or disregarded 
by God. 
esse propitius potest némini (Nat. D.i. 124), 4e can be gracious to nobody. 
est hominum generi prosperus et salitaris ille fulgor (Repub. vi. 17), hat 
radiance is favorable and beneficial to the race of men. 
céterae rés quae expetuntur opportiinae sunt singulae rébus singulis 
(Lzl. 22), all other things that are sought after are suitable each to 
some particular thing. 
magnis autem viris prosperae semper omnés rés (Nat. D. ii. 167), dut to 
great men everything is always favorable. 
sédés huic nostré nén importiina sermOni (De Orat. iii. 18), a place not 
unsuitable for this conversation of ours. 
adversissimi navigantibus venti (B. C. iii. 107), wds most adverse jor 
those who sail. 
sed nén quicquid tibi audire itile est, id mihi dicere necesse est (Offic. 
ili. 52), but not everything that is useful for you to hear ts necessary 
for me to say. 
cui fundd erat affinis M. Tullius (Tullius 14), to which estate M: Tullius 
' was next neighbor. 
convenienter naturae vivere (Offic. iii. 13), to dive in accordance with 
nature (dporoyoupévws TH poet). 
congruenter natitirae (Finib. iii. 26), 7 harmony with nature. 
NOTE 1.— So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with idem : as, — 
invitum qui servat idem facit occidenti (Hor. Ars. P. 467), he who saves 
aman against his will does the same as one who kills him. ; 
NOTE 2.— Adjectives of dikeness are often followed by atque (fc), as. So also 
the adverbs aequé, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronoun idem has regularly 
atque ora relative. Thus, — 
si parem sententiam hic habet ac formam (Plaut. Mil. 1251) 7f he has 
sense equal to his beauty (like as his beauty). 
té suspicor eisdem rébus quibus mé ipsum commovéri (Cato Maj. 1), Z 
suspect you are disturbed by the same things by which I am. 


232 Syntax: Construction of Cases. +  [§ 234 


6. Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad to 
denote the purpose or end; but regularly the Dative of Jersons: as, — 


aptus ad rem militarem, fit for @ soldier’s duty. 
locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 53), a place fitter for lying in wait, 
nobis utile est ad hanc rem, 77 zs of use ¢o us for this thing. 


c. Adjectives and nouns of zzclination and the like may take the 
Accusative with in or erga: as, — 
comis in uxdrem (Hor. Ep. ii, 2), Aind 4o his wife. 
divina bonitas erga hominés (N. D. ii. 60), che divine goodness towards men. 
dé benevolentid quam quisque habeat erga nos (Offic. i. 47), im regard 
to each man’s good will which he has towards us. 
gratidrem mé esse in te (Fam. xi. 10), chat [ am more grateful to you. 


ad. Some adjectives of Likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, 
ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive Genitive.! 
Thus, — 
quod ut illi proprium ac perpetuum sit . . . optare débétis (Leg. Man. 48), . 
which you ought to pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. 
fuit hoc quondam proprium populi Romani (Manil. 32), ¢i7s was once 
the peculiar characteristic of the Roman people. 
id quod red maximé necessarium est (Cecil. 38), a thing which is espe- 
cially necessary for the defendant. 
cum utrique sis maximé necessarius (Att. ix. 7, A), simce you are espe- 
cially bound to both. 
prociirator aequé utriusque necessarius (Quinctius 86), ax agent equally 
closely connected with both. 
NOTE. — The genitive in this construction is not objective like those above, but 
possessive (cf, § 214. @). 
1. The Genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they 
are used wholly or approximately as nouns. Thus, — 
amicus Cicer6ni, friendly to Cicero. But, Cicer6nis amicus, a friend of 
Cicero; and even, Cicerdnis amicissimus, a very great friend of Cicero. 
Créticus et 6ius aequalis PaeoOn (Orat. 215), the Cretic and its equivalent 
the Pacon. 
hi erant affinés istius (Verr. ii. 36), these were this man’s fellows. 

- 2. After similis, ke, the genitive is more common in early writers. 
Cicero uses the genitive of “ving objects, and either the genitive or 
dative of things: as, — 

domini similis es (Ter.) you're like your master (your master’s like). 





1 Such are aequalis, affinis, amicus, cOgnatus, comminis, cOnsan- 
guineus, dispar, familiaris, finitimus, inimicus, necess&rius, par, 
peciliaris, propinquus, proprius (regularly genitive), similis, superstes, 
vicinus, alienus, contrarius, sacer. 


§§ 234, 235.] Dative of Reference. 233 


ut dedrum similés essémus (Nat. D.i. 91), that we might be like the gods. 

simia quam similis turpissima bestia nobis (Nat. D. i. 97, quoted from 
Enn.), how like us is that wretched beast the ape! 

si enim hdc illi simile sit, est illud huic (Nat. D. i. 90), for if this is like 
that, that is like this. 

filius patri similis (Finib. v. 12), a son like his father. 

est similis maidrum sudm (Ter. Ad. 411), 2e’s like his ancestors. 


e. The adjectives propior, proximus sometimes, and the adverbs 
propius, proximé more commonly, take the accusative, as if preposi- 
tions, like prope (see § 261. @). 

propius periculum (Liv. xxi. 1), zearer to danger. 

proximé deds accéssit Clodius (Milon. 59), Clodius has come very near 

the gods. 

proximus Pompeium sedebam (Cic.), J was sitting next to Pompey. 

proximus mare Oceanum (B. G. iii. 7), zearest the ocean. 

NOTE.— These words take also the ablative with ab! (cf. § 260. 4). 


9. Dative of Reference. 


235. The Dative is often required not by any particular 
word, but by the general meaning of the sentence: as, — 
tibi aras (Pl. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself. 
res tuas tibi habe (formula of divorce), eep your goods to yourself. 
laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me; lauda- 
vit fratrem meum would imply no such motive). 
merités mactavit honOrés, taurum Neptiin6, taurum tibi, pulcher Apolld 
(En. iii. 118), Ze offered the sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune, a bull to 
thee, beautiful Apollo. 
Ciridni nostro tribunatus conglaciat (Fam. viii. 6), our friend Curio’s 
tribuneship is frozen up (the tribuneship is frozen up for Curio). 
NOTE. — The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of Advantage 
or Disadvantage (dativus commodi aut incommodi), as denoting the person or 
thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed. ‘The 
meaning of the seritence is complete without the dative, which is not, as in 
the preceding constructions, closely connected with any single word. Thus 
the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances even when 
the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example. 


a. The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole idea, 
instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word: as, — 
iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. Maj. 75), 4o block the march 
of the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the 
disadvantage of, etc.). 
sé in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. v. 86), Le put himself in sight of the 
sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight). 


1 This comes from their original meaning of of, as we say of Newport. 





234 Syntax: Construction of Cases.  [§§ 235, 236. 


versatur mihi ante oculos (id. 123), 2¢ comes before my eyes (it comes to me 

before the eyes). 

4. The dative is used of the person from whose point of view a situ- 
ation or direction is defined. 

This construction answers to the English as you go in, and the like. 
The person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the 
plural: as, — 

oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiré (B. C. iii. 80), the first 

town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.). 
laeva parte sinum intrantibus (Liv. xxvi. 26), on the left as you satl up the 
gulf (to those entering). : 

est urbe égressis tumulus (4En. ii. 713), here zs, as you come out of the city, 

@ mound (to those having come out). 

c. The dative of reference is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by 
néléns, voléns, participles of n616, vol6, or by some similar word: as, 

ut quibusque bellum invitis aut cupientibus erat (Tac. An. i. 59), as each 

might receive the war reluctantly or gladly, 

ut militibus labos volentibus esset (Jug. 100), éhat the soldiers might 

assume the task willingly. 

ad. The dative of reference is used idiomatically without any verb in 
colloquial questions and exclamations: as, — 

quo mihi fortinam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune ? 

unde mihi lapidem (Hor. Sat. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone? 

quo tibi, Tilli (Hor. Sat. i. 6. 24), what use for you, Tillius? 

é. The dative of reference is sometimes used after Interjections: 
as, — 

vae victis, woe to the conquered. 

em tibi, here, dake that (there, for you)! [Cf. § 236.] 

hei mihi, 22, me / 


10. Ethical Dative. 
236. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to 


show a certain interest felt by the person indicated :! as, — 


quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor.), pray what is Celsus doing ? 

suo sibi.servit patri (Plaut. Capt. Prol.), Ze serves his own father. 

at tibi repente venit mihi Cominius (Fam. ix. 2), but, look you, of a sudden 
comes to me Cominius. 

hem tibi talentum argenti (Pl. Truc. 60), hark ye, a talent of silver, 

quid tibi vis, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself) ? 


This construction is called the Ethical Dative (dativus éthicus). Itis 
really only a special case of the dative of reference. 





1 Compare “ I'll rhyme you so eight years together.” — ds You Like lt 


§§ 236, 237.] Accusative of Direct Object. 23 5 


REMARK. — To express FOR— meaning instead of, in defence of, in eT: of— 
the ablative with pr6 must be used: as,— 


pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2), 4o die for one’s country. 
pro rege, lege, grege (prov.), for hing, daw, people. 
ego ibo pro te (Plaut. Most.), J will go instead of you. 


ill. —ACCUSATIVE. 


NOTE. — The Accusative originally served to connect the noun loosely with the 
verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjective. 
Probably its earliest use was to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative 
(run a race, fight a battle, see § 238). From this it would be a short step to the 
Factitative Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a 
hole, cf. § 175. note 1), From this last could easily come the common accusative 
(of Affecting, dreak a table, plug a hole, see § 237). Traces of all these uses appear 
in the language, and the loose connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use 
of stems in composition! (cf. p. 205, head-note). 


The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows : 


1. Directly affected by the Action (§ 237). 


1. PRIMARY OBJECT: 2. Effect of the Action | Thing produced (§ 237). 
Cognate Accusative (§ 238). 


1. Predicate Accusative (of Naming, etc.) (§ 239. a). 
2. Two ACCUSATIVES | 2. Of Asking or Teaching (§ 239. ¢). 

3. Of Concealing (§ 239. @). 

1. Adverbial (§ 240. a, 4). 

2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) (§ 240. ¢). 
3. IDIOMATIC USES: 3. Of Extent and Duration (§ 240. ¢). 

4. Of Exclamation (§ 240. @). 

§- Subject of Infinitive (§ 240. f). 


1. Direct Object. 
237. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in 
the Accusative (§ 177). 


The accusative of the Direct Object denotes (a) that which is dzrectly 
affected, or (6) that which is caused or produced by the action of the 
verb: as, — 

(2) Brutus Caesarem interfécit, Brutus killed Cesar. 

(4) aedem facere, zo make a temple. [Compare proelium pignare, Zo 

Jight a battle, § 238). 
NOTE. — There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished 


from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) 
are called transitive, but many of these are often used ntransitively or absolutely. 





1Compare armiger, armor-bearer, with arma gerere, ¢o dear arms, fidi- 
cen, lyre-player, with fidibus canere, /o (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also 
hanc ta&cti6 (Plaut.), ¢4e fact of] touching her, with hanc tangere, to touch her 


236 Syntax: Construction of Cases [§ 237 


Thus timed, / fear, is transitive in the sentence inimicum timed, / fear my 
enemy, but intransitive (adso/ute) in nOli tim6re, don’t be afraid. Again, many 
verbs are transitive in one sense and intransitive in another: as, Helvétids © 
superavérunt RO6mani, the Romans overcame the Helvetians; but nihil 
superabat, nothing remained (was left over). So also many verbs usually 
intransitive may be used transitively with a slight change in their meaning: as, 
ridés, you are laughing; but M6 ridés, you're laughing at me. 


a. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its 
subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (§ 177. a): as,— 

Brutus Caesarem interfécit, Brutus killed Cesar. 

Caesar a Bruto interfectus est, Cesar was killed by Brutus. 

domum aedificat, Ze duzlds a house. 

domus aedificatur, she house is building (being built). 


6. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing /eeling, take an 
accusative, and may be used in the passive: as, — 


meum casum lictumque doluerunt (Ses. 145), they grieved [at] my calamity 
and sorrow. 
si non Acrisium risissent Iuppiter et Venus (Hor. O. iii. 16. 5), if Hupiter 
and Venus had not laughed [at] Acrisius. 
ridétur ab omni conventu (Hor. S. i. 7. 22), he is laughed [at] by the whole 
assembly. 


c. Verbs of Zaste, smell, and the like take an accusative of the 
quality: as, — 

vinum redoleéns (Cic.), swelling [of] wine. 

herbam mella sapiunt (Plin.), che honey tastes [of] grass. 

NOTE.— These are propérly Cognate Accusatives (§ 238). 


ad. Verbs of motion, compounds of circum and trans, and a few others, 
frequently become transitive, and take the accusative (cf. § 228. a): as, 


mortem obire, fo die (to meet death). 
consulatum ineunt (Liv. ii. 28), hey enter upon the consulship, 
néminem conveni (Fam. ix. 14), / met no one. 
si insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island, 
transire flumen (id. ii. 23), 20 cross the river (cf. § 239. 6). 
cives qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 21), the citizens who stand about the 
senate, 
e. The accusative is used after the impersonals decet, délectat, 
iuvat, oportet, fallit, fugit, praeterit: as, — 
t6 non praeterit (Fam. i. 8), 2¢ does not escape your notice. 
ita ut vos decet (Plaut. Most. 729), so as befits you. 
mé pedibus délectat claudere verba (Hor. Sat. ii. 1. 28), my delight is 4 
(it pleases me) 40 ye words in measure. 
nec m6 animi fallit (Lucr. i. 136), wor does it escape my attention (elude 
me in mind). 


§ 237.} Accusative of Direct Object. 237 


nisi mé fallit, ws/ess [ am mistaken (unless it deceives me). 
itivit mé tibi tuas litteras profuisse (Fam. v. 21), 2¢ pleased me that your 
literary studies had profited you. 


So after latet in poetry and post-classical prose: as, — 
latet plerdsque (Plin. ii. 82), z¢ 2s unknown to most persons. 


NOTE 1.— These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic signifi- 
cation. Hence most of them are also used personally (cf. §§ 227. a, 239. @). 
NOTE 2,— Decet and latet sometimes take the dative: as,— 


hostique propinquo Roma latet (Sil. It. xii. 614), and Rome lies hidden 


from the foe close by. 
ita nobis decet (Ter. Ad. 928), thus it befits us, 


NOTE 3.— Many verbs usually intransitive are sometimes used transitively from 
a similarity of meaning with other verbs that regularly take the accusative: as, — 


multa geméns igndminiam (Georg. iii. 226), groaning much at the dis- 
grace. (Cf. doled, § 237. .] 

festinare fugam (Ain. iv. 575), to hasten their flight. [Cf. accelerd.} 

comptos arsit crines (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 13), she burned with love for his 
well-combed locks, [Cf, adamo.] 


jf. In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived 
from transitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusa- 
tive : as, — 
quid tibi hane tactid est (Plaut. Poen, 1308), what business have you to 
touch her? [Cf. tango.] 
mirabundi bestiam (Ap. Met. 4, 16), /ud/ of wonder at the creature. (CE. 
miror. | 
vitabundus castra (Liv. xxv. 13), trying to avoid the camp. [Cf, vito,] 


g. In early usage the impersonal gerundive with esse governs the 
accusative (§ 294. ¢): as, — 
quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. Major 6), which (road) we must enter 
upon. [Here Cicero purposely uses an archaic construction. ] 


poenas in morte timendumst (Lucr. i. 111), we have to fear punishment in 
death. 


h. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used adsolutely (p. 234, 
note), having their natural object in the ablative with dé: as, — 


priusquam Pomponius dé eius adventii cogndsceret (B, C, iii, 101), before 
Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. 6ius adventii cognits, 
his arrival being discovered. | 


#. For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 221. 3. 


238 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 238. 


2. Cognate Accusative. 
238. A neuter verb often takes the accusative of a 
noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective 
or in some other manner. 


This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative of 
Kindred Signification. ‘Thus, — 


vitam tutiorem vivere (Hor.), 40 live a safer life. 

tertiam iam aetatem hominum vivebat (Cato M. 31), e was now living the 
third generation of men. 

coire societatem, Zo [go together and] form an alliance. 

servitutem servire, 40 be in slavery. 


a. The Cognate Accusative is often loosely used by the poets: 
as, -— 
huic errdri similem [errdrem] insanire (Hor. Sat. ii. 3.62), Zo suffer a delu- 
sion like this. 
saltare Cyclopa (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 63), 40 dance the Cyclops (represent in 
dancing). 
Bacchanalia vivere (Juv. ii. 3), 40 ive in revellings. 
Amaryllida resonare (Ecl. i. 5), 0 ve-echo [the name of] Amaryliis. 
intonuit laevum (En. ii. 693), it thundered on the left. 
dulce ridentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 23), sweetly smiling. 
acerba tuens (Lucr. v. 34), looking fiercely. [Cf. Eng. “ to look daggers. a 
NOTE. — In the last three examples the cognate accusative has an adverbial 
signification, See Adverbial Accusative, § 240, a. 


d. A neuter pronoun or colorless noun or adjective is very common 
as cognate accusative (cf. §§ 148. d and 240. a). Thus, — 


Empedoclés multa alia peccat (Nat. D. i. 29), Empedocles commits 
many other slips. 

ego illud assentior Theophrast6 (De Or. 184), 2” this J agree with Theo- 
Phrastus. 

multum té opinio iste fefellit (Ver. ii. i. 88), you were much deceived in 
this expectation (this expectation deceived you much). 

quid mé ista laedunt (Agr. ii. 32), what harm do those things do me ? 

sI tiréd6d aut grand6 quippiam nocuit (N. D. iii. 86), if drought or hail 
has done any injury (has harmed at all). 

hic te monéo, 7 (Sive you this warning (cf. note below). 

id laetor, J rejoice at this (cf. note). 

quae hominés arant, navigant, etc. (Sall. Cat. 2, 7), what men do in plough- 
ing, sailing, etc. 


So in many common phrases: as, — 


si quid ille se velit (B. G. i. 34), tf he should want anything of him (if he 
should want him in anything). 


§§ 238, 239.] Two Accusatives. 239 
numquid me vis, can [do anything more for you? (there is nothing you 
want of me, is there?). [A common form of leave-taking. ] 
quid est quod, etc., why zs zt that, etc.? 
So, —hoe erat quod (Ain. ii. 664), was it for this that, etc.? 
NOTE.—In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be in some 
other construction: as,— 
in hdc eddem peccat, he errs in this same point. 
bonis rébus laetari, 40 rejoice at prosperity. [Also: in, dé, or ex.] 
de testamento monere, Zo remind one of the will, [Later: genitive, § 219. c.] 
offici admoneére, 40 remind one of his duty. [Also: dé officid.] 
c. A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from a 
forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are: — 
ferire foedus, 20 strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim). 
vincere iudicium (sponsioOnem, rem, hoc), 4o prevail on a trial, etc. [As 
if the case were a difficulty to overcome; cf. vincere iter, Ain. vi. 688.] 
terram navigare (Finib. ii. 112), 40 sail over the and, [Perhaps quoted 
from a poet.] : 
aequor navigare, Zo sail the sea. [As if it were transire, § 237. d.] 
maria aspera iuro (Ain. vi. 351), / swear by the rough seas. [The accusa- 
tive with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic.] 
noctés dormire, éo sleep [whole] wights (to spend in sleep). 


NOTE, — These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches 
the cognate construction, cf, the second example under § 238, 
3. Two Accusatives. 
239. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in 
addition to their Direct Object. 
This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Ac- 
cusative or (2) a Secondary Object. 


a. Predicate Accusative. 

1. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same 
person or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition 
with it, is called a Predicate Accusative (cf. § 185, head- 
note). 


a. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, show- 
ing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct 
object: as, — . 

O Spartace, quem enim té potius appellem (Phil. xiii. 22), O Spartacus, 

for what else shall I call you (than Spartacus)? 

Cicer6nem cénsulem creare, ¢o elect Cicero consul. 7 

dictatorem dicere, o name [a man] dictator (e.g. Quintus Fabius). 


240 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 239, 


mé augurem nominaverunt (Philip. ii. 4), ey nominated me for augur. 

gratias agebat quod sé consulem fécisset (Cic.), he thanked him because he 
had made him consul (supported his candidacy). 

hominem prae sé néminem putavit (Cic.), he chought nobody a man in com- 
parison with himself. 

ducem sé militibus tuis praebuit (Vat. 33), Ze offered himself to your 
soldiers as a leader. 

omnes Catilinas Acidinés postea reddidit (Att. iv. 3), Ze has made all the 
Catilines [seem] Acidini. 

NOTE 1.— The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as, — 

hominés ex feris et immanibus mités reddidit et minsuétés (Inv. 1, 2), Zas 
made men from wild and barbarous [creatures] gentle and mild. 

NOTE 2,— In changing from the active voice to the passive, the predicate 

accusative becomes predicate nominative (§ 185): as,— 
réx ab suis appellatur (B. G. vii. 4), he es called hing by his [subjects]. 


b, Secondary Object. 


2. The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used 
(along with the direct object) to denote something more 
remotely affected by the action of the verb. 


6. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take 
(in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally gov- 
erned by the preposition: as, — 


Caesar Germanos fliimen traicit (B.C. i. 83), Cesar throws the Germans 
across the river. 


NOTE 1.— But with these verbs the preposition is more commonly repeated, 
or sometimes the ablative is used: as,— 


donec rés suas trans Halyn flumen traicerent (Liv. xxxviii. 25), 2/7 they 
should get their possessions across the river Halys, 

(exercitus) Pad6 traiectus Cremonam (Liv. xxi. 56), the army was conveyed 
across the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, § 258. g). 


NOTE 2.— The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb: as,— 


Belgae Rhénum traducti sunt (B. G. ii. 4), the Belgians were led over 
the Rhine. 


NOTE 3.—Sometimes the Secondary Object appears to become the subject of a 
passive verb; but this comes from a change of meaning, and the object is really 
Direct. See the Remark, 


REMARK.— The double construction indicated in 3 is possible only when the | 
force of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the 
compound, the verb governing the Direct, and the preposition the Secondary 
object, 


§ 239, } Two Accusatives. 241 


’ But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transi- 
tive verb of simple meaning, In this case the verb-element loses its power to 
govern the accusative, and the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue of its 
prepositional part. Thus used the compound can have but one accusative, — the 
same which was formerly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. 
So tr&ici6 comes to mean either (1) 40 pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) ¢o 
cross (a river, etc.) : as, — 

(1) gladio hominem traiécit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iacid 
has lost all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a 
verb to the meaning of trans, and to tell the manuer of the act, ] 

(2) Rhodanum traiecit, Ze crossed the Rhone. [Here iacid has become simply 
a verb of motion, and traicio is hardly distinguishable from transe6.] 

In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary 

objects if tr&iécit were used in its primary signification, have become the direct 

objects. Hence in the passive construction they become the subjects and are put 
in the nominative. Thus,— 

hom6 traiectus est gladi6, che man was pierced with a sword. 

Rhodanus traiectus est, the Rhone was crossed. 

The poetical tr&iectus l6ra (Afn. ii. 273), pierced with thongs, comes from a 

mixture of two constructions ;— 


(1) eum traiécit lora, he rove thongs through him, and 

(2) eum traiecit loris, he pierced him with thongs. 
In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former (16ra) 
is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the latter (eum) is made the subject. 


c. Verbs of asking and teaching may take two accusatives, one of the 
Person (direct object), and the other of the Thing (secondary object): as, 


mé sententiam rogavit, Le asked me my opinion. 

Otium divos rogat (Hor, Od. ii, 16, 1), he prays the gods for rest. 

haec cum praetorem postulabas (Tull. 39), when you demanded this of the 
preator. 

aedilis populum rogare (Liv. vi. 42), fo ask the people [to elect] ediles. 

docére pueros elementa, ¢o éeach children their A B C’s. 


NOTE 1.—Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a prep- 
osition instead of the accusative, So, always, petoO (ab), quaerd (ex, ab, dé), 
often postulo (ab), and occasionally others: as,— 

pacem ab Romanis petiérunt (B, G. ii. 13), hey sought peace from the 

Romans. 

quod quaesivit ex mé P. Appuléius (Phil. vi, 1), what Publius Appuleius 

asked of ne. 

NOTE 2,.— With the passive of verbs of asking or teaching, the Jerson or the 
thing may be used as subject (cf. d, note): as,—~ 

Caesar sententiam rogatus est, Cesar was asked his opinion, 

id ab ed flagitabatur (B. C.i. 71), this was urgently demanded of him, 





1 Perhaps not found in the active, but cf. tr&iect6 fine (Ain, v. 488). 


242 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§ 239, 240. 


REMARK. — Thé accusative of the ¢#img may be retained with the passive of 
rog6, and of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs; as, — 
fuerant hoe rogati (Ceel. 64), they had been asked this. 
poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. Met. vii. 771), J am asked for my Lelaps. 
Cicero per legatos ctincta edoctus (Sall. Cat. 45), Cicero being informed of 
everything through the ambassadors. 
But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the 
subject-nominative, and the person is put in the ablative with a preposition: as,— 
né postulantur quidem vires & senectiite (Cat. M. 34), strength is not even 
expected of an old man (asked from old age). 


d. The verb e616, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually 
intransitive late6, Ze hd, an accusative of the person (cf. § 237. @): as, — 


non té celavi sermonem T. Ampi (Fam. ii. 16), J did not conceal from you 

the talk of T. Ampius. 

nec latuére doli fratrem Iunodnis (Ain. i. 130), zor did the wiles of Funo 

escape the notice of her brother. 

NOTE. — All the double constructions indicated in ¢ and d arise from the waver- 
ing meaning of the verbs, Thus doce6 means both to show a thing, and to instruct 
a person; C616, to Zeep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing; rogo, to gues- 
tion a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be 
regarded as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. ¢, note 
2, above), but for convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called second- 
ary. 

4. Idiomatic Uses. 


240. The Accusative has the following special uses :— 


a. A neuter pronoun or adjective is used as cognate accusative with 
an adverbial force (Adverbial Accusative, cf. § 238. 6): as, — 


quid moror, why do I delay ? 

dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 24), sweetly speaking. 

acerba tuéns (Ain. ix. 794), looking cruelly. 

torvum clamat (id. vii. 399), e cries harshly. 

NOTE.—This use does not differ from the cognate accusative except that in some 
cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has faded out so that the words 
* are real adverbs. But no fixed line can be drawn between these two constructions. 


6. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases: as, — 


id temporis, af chat time. 

id (istuc) aetatis, at that age. 

id (quod) genus, of that (what) sort (perhaps originally senrmapath te 
meam vicem, on my part. 

maximam partem, for the most pare. 

bonam partem, 7 @ great measure. 

virile secus, of the wale sex (probably originally in apposition), 
cétera, i other respects. 

quod si, du¢ (as to which) #7 


IPA pL 


os 


§ 240.] ldtomatic Uses of the Accusative. 243 


c. The so-called symecdochical or Greek accusative is used by the 
sats to denote the part affected: as, — 


caput nectentur (Ain. v. 309), their head shall be bound (they shall be 
bound about the head). 

ardentis oculds suffecti sanguine et igni (id. ii. 210), “heir glaring eyes 
bloodshot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes, etc.). 

nuda genii (id. i. 320), dare fo the knee. 


NOTE,—In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be re- 
garded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (§ 111. a): as,— 


inutile ferrum cingitur (/En. ii. 510), he girds on the useless steel. 

nodo siniis collécta fluentis (id. i. 320), having her flowing folds gathered 
in a knot. 

umer6s insternor pelle leOnis (id. ii. 722), 7 cover my shoulders with a 
lion’s skin. 

protinus induitur faciem cultumque Dianae (Ov. Met. ii. 425), forthwith 
she assumes the shape and garb of Diana. 


d. The accusative is used in exclamations: as, — 


O fortiinatam rempublicam, of, fortunate republic! [Cf. O fortiinata mors 
(Philip. xiv. 31), of, happy death! (§ 241. ¢).] 

mé miserum, ah, wretched me / 

én quatuor aras (Ecl. v. 65), 0, four altars! 

éllum (= én illum), éhere he is / 

eccds (= ecce eds), there they are, look at them! 

pro deum fidem, good heavens (oh, protection of the gods) ! 

hocine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304), of, this generation | 

huncine hominem (Verr. v. 62), ckis man, good heavens! 

O mé infelicem (Milon. 102), of, unhappy I! 


NOTE 1.— Such expressions depend upon some long-forgotten verb. ‘The use 
of -ne in some cases suggests an original question, as in quid ? what? why? tell me, 

NOTE 2.— The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic ac- 
cusatives. Such are:— 


salutem (sc. dicit) (in letters), greeting. 

quo mihi fortunam, of what use is fortune? [Here no verb is thought of.] 
unde mihi lapidem, where can J get a stone? 

meé dius fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me heaven (the god of faith). 


¢. Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusa- 
tive (see §§ 256, 257). | 

f. The subject of the infinitive mood is in the accusative. This is 
especially frequent after words of knowing, thinking, telling, and per- 
ceiving (verba sentiendi et déclirand?, see § 272). 

g. The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition 
with a clause: as,— 


244 Syntax: Construction of Cases.  [§§ 240-42. 


déserunt tribunal... manus intentantés, causam discordiae et initium 
armorum (Tac. Ann. i. 27), fizally they abandon the tribunal shaking 
their fists, — a cause of dissension and the beginning of war. 


NOTE.— This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage 
more nearly within the ordinary rules, such as, — 


Eumenem prddidere Antiochd, pacis mercédem (Sall. Ep. Mith.), hey 
betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace. [Here Eumenes 
may be considered the price, although the real price is the betrayal. ] 


h. For the accusative of the End of Motion, see § 258; for that 
after postridié, propior, etc., see § 261. a. 
[For the Accusative with Prepositions, see § 152. a, é.] 


IV.— VOCATIVE. 
241. The Vocative is the case of direct address: as, — 
Tiberine pater, te sancte et (Livy ii. 10), O, father Tiber, thee, holy 
one, [ pray. 

a. A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of the 
imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative: as, — 

audi tu, populus Albanus (Liv. i. 24), Lear, thou people of Alba. 

b. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used instead of the 
nominative, where the verb is in the second person: as, — 

censorem trabeate salutas (Pers. iii. 29), robed you salute the censor. 

¢. The nominative may be used in exclamations (cf. § 240. 2) : as, — 

én dextra fidésque (Ain. iv. 597), lo, the faith and plighted word! 

d. The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte 
esté (virtiite), success attend your (valor). Thus, — 


iubérem te macte virtite esse (Liv. ii..12), 7 should bid you go on and 
prosper in your valor. 
NoTE.—As the quantity of the final @ in m&cte is not determinable, it may 
be that the word was an adverb, as in bene Ox, and the like. (See American 
Journal of Philology, Vol. I.) 


V.—ABLATIVE. 

242, The Ablative is used to denote the relations 
expressed in English by the prepositions FRoM, IN, AT, 
WITH, BY: as, — 

liberare meti, 20 deliver from fear. 

caecus avaritia, blind with avarice. 

occisus gladid, slain by the sword. 


excultus doctrina, ¢rained in learning. 
hoc ips tempore, at this very time. 


sere 08 6 ae 


$§ 242, 243.] Ablative of Separation. 24.5 


NOTE, — The ablative /orm contains three distinct cases, — the Ablative proper, 
expressing the relation FROM; the Locative, IN; and the Instrumental, WITH or BY. 
This confusion has arisen partly from phonetic decay ({§ 8), by means of which the 
three cases have become identical in form, and partly from the development by 
which they have approached one another in meaning. Compare, for the first, the 
like forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in -6 of the fifth declen- 
sion ($ 74. 2), and the loss of the original -d in the ablative (§§ 36. f 62, a); and, 
for the second, the phrases & parte dextra, ON ¢he right; quam ob causam, 
FROM which cause; ad famam, AT (in consequence of) ¢he report. 

The relation of FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison ; 
that of WITH or BY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price ; 
that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance. It is probable that, originally, the idea 
of accompaniment had a separate case, which became confounded with the instru- 
mental before Latin was separated from the kindred tongues. 

The following are the uses of the Latin Ablative, classed according to the origi- 
nal cases which have been combined in it: — 


1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want (§ 243). 
2. Of Source (participles of origin, etc.) ($ 244). 
1. ABLATIVE (jrom): + 3. Of Cause (gauded, dignus, etc.) (§ 245). 
4. Of Agent (with ab after Passives) (§ 246), 
5. Of Comparison (THAN) (§ 247). 
_ x, Of Manner, Means, and Instrument (§ 248). 
2. Of Accompaniment (with cum) (§ 248. a), 
3. Of Object of the Deponents fitor, etc. (§ 249). 
4 4. Of Degree of Difference (¢$ 250). 
5. Of Quality (with Adjectives) (§ 251). 
6. Of Price and Exchange ($ 252). 
| 7. Of Specification (§ 253). 
ae 
2 


2. INSTRUMENTAL 
ABLATIVE (with) : 





. Of Place where (commonly with in) (§ 254). 
3. LOCATIVE ABLA- . Of Idiomatic Expressions (§ 254. a). 
TIVE (i, on, at): | 3. Of Time and Circumstance (§ 256). 
, 4. Ablative Absolute ($ 255). 


1. Ablative of Separation. 


243. Words signifying Separation or Privation are fol- 
lowed by the ablative, with or without a preposition. 


a. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and want, 
require the ablative: as, — 


oculis sé privavit (Fin. v. 87), Ze deprived himself of eyes. 

légibus solutus, relieved from the obligation of laws. 

omni Gallia interdicit Romanis (B. G, i. 46), Ze (Ariovistus) dars the 
Romans from the whole of Gaul. 

ei aqua et igni interdicitur (Vell. Pat. ii. 45), Ze ts debarred the use of fire 
and water. 

voluptatibus carére (Cat. Maj. 7), to Jack enjoyments. 

non eged medicina (Lzl. 10), 7 want no physic. 

magno mé meti liberabis (Cat. i. 10), you will relieve me of great sig ke 

Ephorus calcaribus Abr (Quint. )s Ephorus needs the spur. 


246 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 248. 


levamur superstitidne, liberamur mortis meta (Fin. i. 63), we are relieved 
from superstition, we are freed from fear of death. 

consilid et auctoritate orbari (Cato M.17), ¢o be bereft of counsel and 
authority. 


5. Verbs compounded with a, ab, dé, ex, take the simple ablative 
when used figuratively ; but when used literally to denote sefaration 
or motion, they usually require a preposition (see § 258). Thus, — 

conatu désistere (B. G. i. 8), 40 desist from the attempt. 

deésine communibus locis (Acad. ii. 80), guz¢ commonplaces. 

abire magistratu, 40 Jeave one’s office. 

abstineére iniuria, 4o refrain from wrong. 

But, — aberrare a proposito (Cic.), Zo wander from the point, 

dé provincia decédere (Verr. ii. 48), 40 withdraw from one’s province. 

ab iure abire (id.), 40 go outside of the law. 

ex civitate excéssere (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the state, [But cf. 

finibus suis excesserant (id. iv. 18), hey had left their own territory.] 

a magno demissum nomen Iulo (/En. i. 288), a xame descended (sent down) 

from great Iulus. 


NoTE.— For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see § 229. 


¢. For the ablative of the actual Jlace whence in idiomatic expres- 
sions, see § 258. a, and note 2. 

d. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the abla- 
tive: as, — 

urbs nuda praesidid (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence. 

immunis militia (Liv. i. 43), free of military service. 

plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 9), che people deprived of tribunes. 

NOTE. —Some adjectives of want take the genitive (see § 218. a). 


é. Opus and iisus, signifying weed, are followed by the ablative :1 
as, ‘sit 4 

magistratibus opus est (Leg. ili. 5), chere is need of magistrates, 

nunc viribus usus (Ain. viii. 441), xow there is need of strength. 

NOTE, — With these words the ablative of the perfect participle, with or with- 
out a noun, is often found (§ 292. 4): as, — 

opus est tua exprompta memoria atque astutia (Ter. And. 723), J must have 

your good memory and cleverness set to work, 
properato opus erat (Mil. 49), there was need of haste. 
facto usus est, z¢ zs desirable to do (there is need of the thing’s being done). 


REMARK. — Frequently opus is in the predicate, with the ¢hing needed in the 
nominative as subject: as,— 





1 This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which Opus and fisus 
mean work and service, and the ablative expresses that with which the work is per- 
formed or the service rendered. 


§§ 243,244.]  Adblative of Source and Material. 247 


dix nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6), we need a chief and responsible 
adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary for us). 

si quid ipsi opus esset (B. G. i. 34), if he himself wanted anything (if any- 
thing should be necessary for him). 

quae opus sunt (Cato R. R. 14, 3), things which are required. 


jf: Eges and indiged are often followed by the genitive (§ 223): 

as, — WP aeay 

né quis auxili egeat (B. G. vi. 11), Zest any require aid. 

quae ad consolandum maioris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis virtitis 
indigent (Fam. vi. 4), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more 
ability, and for endurance unusual courage. 


REMARK, ~—— The Genitive is by a Greek idiom often used in poetry instead of 
the Ablative with all words of separation and want (§ 223. 4. 3): as,— 

abstineto irarum (Hor. Od. ili. 27. 70), abstain from wrath. 

operum solutis (id. 17, 16), free from toils. 

desine mollium querelarum (id. ii. 9. 17), Zave done with weak complaints, 


2. Ablative of Source and Material. 


244. The Ablative with or without a preposition is used 
to denote the Source from which anything is derived, or 
the Material of which it consists, — 


These ablatives commonly take a preposition: as, — 

1. Source : — 

Rhénus oritur ex Lépontiis (B. G. iv. 10), the Rhine rises in (from) the 
country of the Lepontit. 

ab aliquo sermo oritur (Lzlius 5), the conversation is begun by (arises 
from) some one. 

ciiius ratidnis vim atque itilitatem ex illd caelesti Epiciri volimine 
accépimus (Nat. D. i. 43), of this reasoning we have learned the power 
and advantage from that divine book of Epicurus. 

suavitatem oddrum qui afflarentur 6 fldribus (Cato Major 59), the sweet- 
ness of the odors which breathed from the flowers. 


2. Material :— 


erat totus ex fraude et mendacio factus (Clu. 72), he was entirely made 
up of fraud and falsehood. 

valvas magnificentidrés, ex aurd atque ebore perfectidrés (Verr. iv. 124), 
more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory, 

factum dé cautibus antrum (Ov. Met. i. 575), @ cave formed of rocks, 

templum dé marmore ponam (Georg. iii. 13), 72 ducld a temple of marble. 

NOTE 1.—In poetry the preposition is often omitted. 

sae 2.— The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source 
214). 


248 Syntax: Construction of Cases. | § 244, 


a. Participles denoting dzrth or origin are followed by the Ablative 
of Source, generally without a preposition :? as, — 
Tove natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 56), son of Fupiter and Maia. 
édite regibus (Hor. Od. i. 1. 1), descendant of kings. 
quo sanguine crétus (Ain. ii. 74), born of what blood. 
genitae Pandione (Ov. Met. vi. 666), daughiers of Pandion. 
REMARK. —A preposition (ab, d6, ex) is usually expressed with the name of 
the mother, and often with that of other ancestors: as,— 
cum ex utraque [uxore] filius natus esset (De Orat. i. 183), each wife 
having had a son (when a son had been born of each wife). 
Trods est generatus ab illd (Ov. Fast. iv. 33), Zros was sprung from him. 
ex mé hic natus non est sed ex fratre meo (Ter. Ad. 40), chis ts not my son, 
but my brother’s (not born from me, etc.). 
Belus et omnés & Belo (Ain. i. 730), Belus and ail his descendants. 


b. Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: 
as, — 
desideravit C. Felginatem Placentia, A. Granium Puteolis (B. C. iii. >i: 
he lost C. Felginas of Placentia, A. Granius of Puteolt. 
_NoTEe.— The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone; as,— 
Q. Verrem Romilia (Verres i. 23), Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe. 


c. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a preposi- 
tion. Such are c6nst&re, cGnsistere, and continéri.2 But with 
cénstare, ex is more common. Thus:— 

domits amoenitas non aedificid sed silva constabat (Nep. Att. 13), che 

charm of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods. 

ex animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 19), we consist of soul and body. 

vita corpore et spiritt continetur (Marc. 28),//fe consists of body and spirit. 


ad. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with facere, 
fieri, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of : as, — 

quid hoc homine faciatis (Ver. ii.i.42), what are you going to do with this: 

man ? 

quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4), what will become of my dear Tullia P 

quid t@ futurum est (Ver. ii. 155), what will become of you ? 

é. The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a: 
preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun: as,— 


non pauca pocula ex aurd (Verr. iv. 62), zot a few cups of gold. 
scopulis pendentibus antrum (/En. i. 166), @ cave of hanging rocks.. 





I Such are natus, satus, éditus, genitus, ortus, prégnatus, gene- 
ratus, crétus, creatus, oriundus, 
2 The ablative with cSnsistere and contin&ri is locative in origin (cf. § 


254. 0). 


S§ 244, 245. ] Ablative of Cause. 249 


f- For Genitive of Material, see § 214. 4 
g- For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see § 216. ¢. 


3. Ablative of Cause. 


245. The ablative (with or without a preposition) is 
used to express Cause.! 


nimio gaudid paene désipicbam (Fam. ii. 9), 2 was almost wild from too 
much joy. 

neglegentia plectimur (Lel. 85), we are chastised for negligence. 

gubernatoris ars wtilitate non arte laudatur (Fam. i. 13), che Pilot's skill ts 
praised for its service, not tts skill, 

certis dé causis, for certain reasons. 

ex vulnere aeger (Rep. ii. 38), disabled by (from) a wound. 

mare & sole lucet (Ac. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun). 

ex opportinitate loci (Jug. 48, 2), from the advantage of position. 


a. Certain verbs and adjectives regularly take the ablative of cause 
without a preposition. These are: — 
1. The adjectives dignus, indignus: as, — 


vir patre avd maidribus suis dignissimus (Phil. iii. 25), @ wan most worthy 
of his father, grandfather, and ancestors. 

ié omni honGre indignissimum iudicat (Vatinius 39), te judges you 
entirely unworthy of every honor. 


2. The verbs dignor, lab6r6 (also with ex), exsilié, exsulté, 
triumph6, lacrim6, arde6: as, — 


haud equidem tali me dignor hondre (Ain. i. 335), 7 do not deem myself 
worthy of such an honor. 

doleo te aliis malis laborare (Fam. iv. 3), / em sorry that you suffer with 
other ills, 

ex aere aliénd laborare (B. C. iii. 22), 40 labor under debt (lit., from 
another’s money). 

exsultare laetitia ac triumphare gaudi6 coepit(Clu. 14), ske degan to exult in 
gladness, and triumph in Joy. 

exsilui gaudié (Fam. xvi. 16), / jumped for joy. 

lacrimo gaudid (Ter. Ad. 409), 7 weep for joy. 

délictd dolére (Leel. 90), 0 grieve for the fault. 

ardére dolére et ira (Att. ii. 19), 40 be on fire with pain and anger. 


NOTE 1.— For gaudeG and gl6rior, see § 254. 4. 





1 The cause, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab, 
a6, ex; but when the accusative with ad, ob is used, the idea of cause arises 
from nearness. Occasionally, however, it is difficult to distinguish between cause and 
means (which is the old Instrumental Case) or circumstance (which is either the 
Locative or the Instrumental), 


250 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§ 245, 246. 


NOTE 2.— Dignus and indignus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial 
usage and in poetry: as,— 
curam dignissimam tuae virtitis (Balbus in Att. viii. 15), care most 
worthy of your noble character. 
dignus salitis (Plaut. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety. 
magnorum haud umquam indignus avorum (Ain. xii. 649), never un- 
worthy my great ancestors. 


NOTE 3.—-For the construction of dignus and indignus with verbs, see § 
320. ft 

b. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is 
expressed by the ablative of cause; the odject exciting the emotion 
often by ob? or propter with the accusative: as, — 


non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), 20 for booty or 
through lust of plunder. 

amicitia ex sé et propter sé expetenda (Fin. ii. 83), friendship must be 
sought of and for itself. 


NOTE.— But these constructions are often confused: as, —~ 


parere legibus propter metum (Parad. 34), zo obey the laws on account of 
fear. [Here metum is almost equivalent to “the terrors of the law,” 
and hence propter is used, though the ablative would be more 
natural. ] : 


c. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of, are used with a 
genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement: as, — 


ea causa, on account of this; qua gratia (Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose f 
mea causa, for my sake; mea gratia (Plaut.), for my sake. 

ex mea et reipublicae causa, for my own sake and the republic's. 
praedictionis causa (Nat. D. iii. 5), dy way of prophecy. 

exempli gratia (verbi gratia), for example. 

sui purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves. 


NOTE. — But grati& with possessives in this use is rare. 


4. Ablative of Agent. 


246. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is put in 
the ablative with 4 or ab: as, — 


Jaudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. Sat. i. 2. 11), he ¢s praised by these, 
blamed by those. 

ab anim6 tud quidquid agitur id agitur & té (Tusc. i. 52), whatever is done 
by your soul is done by yourself. 





1 This use of ob was originally mercantile; cf. ob decem min&s, for the price 
of ten mine (see p. 131). 


§§ 246, 247.] Adblative of Agent; of Combarison. 251 


& filiis in iudicium vocatus est (Cat. Major 22), he was brought to trial 
by his sons. 
cum & cinctO conséssii plausus esset multiplex datus (Cat. Major 64), 
when great applause had been given by the whole audience. 
ne virtuis ab audacia vincerétur (Sest. 92), chat valor might not be over- 
borne by audacity. 
Nore.— This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The 
agent is conceived as the source or author of the action. 
REMARK. — The ablative of the agent (which requires & or ab) must be care- 
fully distinguished from the ablative of zzstrumen?, which has no preposition (§ 
248.¢.1). Thus— 


occisus gladi6, slain by a sword, but, occisus ab hoste, s/ain dy an enemy. 
a. The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after neuter 
verbs that have a passive sense: as, — 
perire ab hoste, 40 be slain by an enemy. 
6. The agent, when considered as instrument or means, is ex- 
pressed by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or 
possessive. Thus, — 
Caesar certior factus est 4 légatis, Cesar was informed by the ambassadors 
(in person). But,— ; 

Caesar certior factus est per légatos, Cesar was informed by ambassadors 
(z.e. by means of ambassadors). 

élautae opera Neptiini (Plaut. Rud. 699), washed clean by the services of 


Neptune. 

non mea opera evenit (Ter. Hec. 228), z# hasn’t happened through me (by 

my exertions). 

NoTE 1.— An animal is usually regarded not as the agent, but as the means or 
instrument, Hence the simple ablative is used. But ab sometimes occurs, 
Thus, — ; 

equo vehi, Zo ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not 

ab equé.] But, — 

Liicind cum sic laceréris ab ursd (Mart. Ep. 8), sizce you are thus 

mangled by a Lucanian bear, 


NOTE 2.— For the Dative cf the Agent with the Gerundive, see § 232, 


5. Ablative of Comparison. 
247. The Comparative degree is followed by the abla- 
tive! (signifying THAN) : as, — 
Cats est Cicer6ne Eloquentior, Cafo is more eloquent than Cicero. 


guid nobis dudbus laboriosius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with toil 
than we two? 
1 This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation. The object with which any- 


thing is compared is the starting-point from which we reckon. Thus, “ Cicero és 
eloquent”; but starting from him we come to Cato, who is “ more so than he.” 





252 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 247. 


vilius argentum est aurd, virtitibus aurum (Hor. Ep. i. 1. 52), stlver zs less 
precious than gold, gold than virtue. 
a. The comparative may be followed by quam, ¢Aam. When quam 
is used, the two things compared are put in the same case (cf. § 208. a). 
The construction with quam is required when the first of the things 
compared is in any other case than the nominative or accusative. 
With those cases its use is optional. Thus, — 
contidnibus accommodatior est quam itidiciis (Clu. 2), fitter for popular 
assemblies than for courts. 
misericordia dignior quam contumélia (Piso 32), more worthy of pity 
than of disgrace. bd 
non callidior es quam hie (Rosc. Am. 49), you are not more cunning 
than he. 


REMARK. — Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam 
in this construction, but always the ablative: as, — 


rex erat Aenéas nobis, quod itstior alter, etc. (Ain. i. 545), <Zncas was our 
king, than whom no other was more righteous, etc. 


NOTE. — The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose 
construction requires quam: as,— 
pane egeo iam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. i. 10), J want bread 
better than honey-cakes. 
&. The idiomatic ablatives opinidne, spé, solitd, dictd, aequé, 
crédibili, and itist6 are used after comparatives instead of a clause: as, 


gravius aequo (Sall.), wore seriously than was right. 
celerius opiniOne (Fam, xiv. 23), faster than one would think, 


amnis solit6 citatior (Liv. xxiii. 19), @ stream swifter than tts wont, 
serius spe omnium (Liv. xxvi. 26), later than all hoped (than the hope 


of all). 

c. After the comparatives pliis, minus, amplius, longius without 
quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in 
its case: as,— 

plis septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), sore chan 700 were taken. 

plus tertia parte interfecta (Czes.), more than a third part being slain. 

spatium non amplius sexcentérum pedum (id.), @ space of not more than 

600 feet. 


NOTE. — The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to 
the comparative, which is really in a sort of apposition, “seven hundred were taken 
[and] more.” 

d. Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and colloquial 
use!; in formal prose it is followed by ac (atque), nisi, quam. Thus, 





1 This has been thought to be an imitation of the Greek, but the construction is 
found also in Sanskrit, and is probably original. 


pm ae 


_A§ 247, 248.] — Ablative of Manner. : 253 


nec quicquam aliud libertate communi (Fam. xi. 2), nothing else than the 
common liberty. 

alius Lysippo (Hor.), another than Lysippus. 

alium sapiente bonoque (Hor. Ep. i. 16. 20), other than the wise and good. 

alid ingenio ac tu (Plaut.), of a different disposttion from Jou. 

erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium confectio (De Or. ii. 52), history 
was nothing else but a compiling of records. 

nil aliut nisi quod sibi placet (Plaut. Trin. 395), nothing else than what 
pleases him. 


é. The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely 


_ by the ablative except in poetry. Thus, — 


tempus té citius quam 6ratid déficeret (Rosc. Am. 89), time would fail you 
sooner than words. But, — 

cur Sybaris olivum sanguine viperin6 cautius vitat (Hor. Od. i. 8. 9), why 
does Sybaris shun oil more carefully than viper’s blood ? 


6. Ablative of Manner. 


NOTE.— Accompaniment, Manner, Means, and Instrument are denoted by the 
instrumental ablative (see p. 245), but some of these more commonly take a prepo- 
sition, As they all come from one source (the old /wstrumental Case) no sharp 
line can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves never thought 
of any distinction. Thus in omnibus precibus Orabant, they entreated with 
every [kind of] prayer, the ablative is properly that of means, but cannot be dis- 
tinguished from manner. 


248. The manner of an action is denoted by the Abla- 
tive; usually with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used 
with the noun. Thus, — 


cum celeritate vénit, he came with wok But, — 
summa celeritate venit, he came with the greatest speed. 
quid refert qua me ratidne cogatis (Lelius 26), what difference does it 
make in what way you compel me? 
NOTE, — But Cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting adjec- 
tive: as,— 
quanto cum periculd id fécerit (B. G. i. 17), at what risk he did this. 
non minore cum taedid recubant (Plin. Ep. ix. 17, 3), ¢hey recline with no 
less weariness. 
REMARK.— With such words of manner as mod6, p&cté, ratidne, rita, 
via, and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as silenti6, 
initirié), cum is very rare. Thus,— 


apis Matinae more modoque carmina fingo (Hor. Od. iv. 2. 28), t the 
style and manner of a Matinian bee I fashion songs. 


So in poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum: as, — 


mons aquae sequitur cumul6 (Ain. i. 105), @ mountain of water follows in 
amass. [Cf. murmure (id. 124); rimis (id. 123).] 


254 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 248, 


7. Ablative of Accompaniment. 


a. Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative, regularly 
with cum: as, — 


cum coniugibus ac liberis vestris, with your wives and children. 

cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgressi (B. G. ii. 19), Leaving 
crossed the river with the archers and slingers. 

quae supplicatid si cum céteris conferatur (Catil. iii. 15), ¢f¢his thanks- 
giving be compared with others. 

quae [lex] esse cum tél6 vetat (Milon. 11), the law which forbids [one] 
to go armed (be with a weapon). 

si secum suds eduxerit (Catil. i. 30), ¢fhe leads out with him his associ- 
ates. [For sécum, see § 99. e. | 


NOTE. — The ablative is used without Cum in military phrases, and here and 
there by early writers: as, — 
subsequebatur omnibus copiis (B. G. ii. 19), e followed close with all his 
forces. 
hic praesidi6 profectus est (Ver. ii. i.86), wth this force he set out. 
REMARK. — Misce6 and iung6, with their compounds, and confund6 may 
take either (1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without Cum, or (2) some- 
times the Dative: as,— 
mixta dolore voluptas (B. Al. 56), pleasure mingled with pain. 
cuius animum cum sud misceat (Lelius 81), whose soul he may mingle 
with his own. 
fletumque cruori miscuit (Ov. Met. iv. 140), and mingled tears with blood. 
Caesar eas cohortés cum sud exerciti coniunxit (B.C. i. 18), Cesar 
united those cohorts with his own army. 
aér coniunctus terris (Lucr. v. 562), air united with earth. 
humano capiti cervicem equinam iungere’ (Hor. A. P. 1), to join toa 
human head a horse’s neck. 


6. Words of Contention and the like require cum: as, — 


armis cum hoste certare, ¢o fight with the enemy in arms. 
libenter haec cum Q. Catuld disputarem(Leg. Man. 66), / should gladly 
discuss these matters with Quintus Catulus. 


NOTE. — But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see § 229. c). 


8. Ablative of Means. 


c. 1. The Ablative is used to denote the means or in- 
strument of an action: as, — 


certantés piignis, calcibus, unguibus, morsti denique (Tuscul. v. 77), 
Sighting with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth. 

cum pignis et calcibus concisus esset (Verr. iil. 56), when he had been 
pummelled with thetr fists ana heels. 


§§ 248, 249.] Ablative of Means. : 255 


meis laboribus interitii rempublicam liberavi (Sulla, 33), dy my coils I have 
saved the state from ruin. 

multae istarum arborum me& mani sunt satae (Cat. Major 59), many of 
those trees were set out with my own hands. 


2. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of filling, 
abounding, and the like: as, — 


Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Univ. 9), God has filled the world 
with all good things. 

aggere et cratibus fossas explent (B. G. vii. 86), they fill up the ditches 
with earth and fascines. 

totum montem hominibus complevit (id. i. 24), he filled the whole 
mountain with men. 

opimus praeda (Ver. ii. i. 132), rich with spoils. 

vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sest. 23), a life filled and crowded 
with delights. 

Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 4), Forum Appit crammed 
with bargemen. 


REMARK.—In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words by a Greek 
idiom, But compleé, impled, plénus and refertus often take the genitive in 
prose (cf. § 223). Thus,— 

omnia plena lictiis et maerodris fuerunt (Sest. 128), everything was full of 

grief and mourning. 

ollam dénariorum implere (Fam. ix. 18), to fill a pot with money. [Here 

evidently colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero. ] 

convivium vicindrum compled (Cato Major 46, in the mouth of Cato), 

L fill up the banquet with my neighbors. 


249. The deponents iitor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, 
with several of their compounds,! govern the ablative: as, 


utar vestra benignitate (Arch. 18), / wil/ avail myself of your kindness. 

sagacitate canum ad utilitatem nostram abittimur (N. D. ii. 151), we take 
advantage of the sagacity of dogs for our own benefit. 

ita mihi salva républic& vobiscum perfrui liceat (Catil. iv. 11), so may J 
enjoy with you the state secure and prosperous. 

aur héros potitur (Oy. Met. vii. 155), che hero takes the gold. 

Numidae plerumque lacte et ferina carne vescébantur (Jug. 88), che 
Numidians fed mostly on milk and game. 

fungi inani miinere (/En. vi. 885), 40 perform an idle service. 


NOTE,—This is really an Ablative of Means and the verbs are really in the 
middle voice (§ 111. a). Thus titor signifies 7 employ myself, or avail myself by 
means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared from the language, leaving 
the construction as we find it. 





1 These are abiitor, defitor, défungor, défruor, perfruor, perfungor, 


256 Syntax: Construction of Cases.  [§§ 249, 250. 


a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase 
potiri rérum, ¢o get control or be master of affairs (§ 223. a): as, — 


totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant (B. G.i. 3), they hope they can 
get possession of the whole of Gaul. 


6. In early Latin, these verbs are often transitive, and take the ac- 
cusative: as, — 


ille patria potitur commoda (Ter. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral estate. 
functus est officium (Ter. Ph. 281), he performed the pari, etc. 


NOTE. — The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if 
the verb were transitive (but cf. § 294. c): as,— 
Heraclio omnia itenda ac possidenda tradiderat (Verr. ii. 46), Le had given 
over everything to Heraclius for his use and possession (to be used and 
possessed). 


9. Ablative of Degree of Difference. 


250. With comparatives and words implying compari- 
son the ablative is used to denote the Degree of Differ- 
ence: as, — 


dudbus milibus plures, ¢wo thousand more (more by two thousand). 
quinque milibus passuum distat, z¢ 7s five miles distant (it stands off by five 
miles). 
aliquot ante annis (Tuscul. i. 4), several years before. 
aliquanto post suspexit (Rep. vi. 9), @ while after he looked up. 
multo me vigilare acrius (Cat. i. 8), that [ watch much more sharply (more 
sharply by much). 
nihilo erat ipse Cyclops quam ariés prudentior (Tuscul. v. 115), for che 
Cyclops himself was not a whit wiser than the ram. 
REMARK.— This use is especially frequent with the ablatives qu6...,e6 
(h6c); quanto... tants (cf. § 106. c): as,— 
qué minus cupiditatis, e6 plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less greed, the 
more weight (by what the less, by that the more). 
quanto erat gravior oppugnatid, tantd crébridres litterae mittébantur (B. G. 
v. 45), the severer the siege was, the more frequenily letters were sent. 
NOTE,— To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of qu6 and 
e6 with a comparative even when they have ceased to be felt as degree of difference 
and approach the Ablative of Cause; as, — 
edque mé minus paenitet (Nat. D. i.8), and for that reason I regret 
less, etc. (by so much the less I regret). : 


a. The Ablative of Comparison (§ 247) and the Ablative of Degree 
_ of Difference are often used together with the same adjective: as, — 


multo divitior Crasso, mzuch richer than Crassus. 


I 


§§ 251, 252.] Ablative of Quality ; of Price. 257 


10. Ablative of Quality. 
251. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative 
with a Modifier (either an adjective or limiting genitive). 


This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality. 


animo melidre sunt gladiatorés (Catil. ii. 26), the gladiators are of a 

better mind. 

quae cum esset civitas aequissimo itire ac foedere (Arch. 6), as this was 

a city with perfectly equal constitutional rights. 

mulierem eximia pulchritiidine (Ver. ii. i. 64), a woman of extraordinary 

beauty. 

Horténsius memoria tanta fuit ut, etc. (Brutus, 301), Wortensius had so 

good a memory that, etc. (was of so great memory). 

quam @lato animo est (Théramenés) (Tuscul. i. 96), Zow lofty a spirit 

Theramenes displays. 
Aristotelés, vir summo ingenio, scientia, copia (Tuscul. i. 7), Aristotle, 
a man of the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression. 

quam tenui aut nulla potius valettidine (Cato Major 35), what feeble 

health he had, or rather none at all! 

dé Domitid dixit versum Graecum eadem sententia (Deiot. 25), concern- 

ing Domitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor. 

NOTE. — The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality) modifies a sub- 
stantive by descrzding it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be 
either attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are 
equivalent to adverbs, Compare, — 

mulier pulchra, a beautiful woman. 

mulier magna pulchritudine, a woman of great beauty, with — 

mulier pulchritudine Troiam delevit, dy Ler beauty a woman destroyed Troy. 

mulier excellens pulchritudine (§ 253), ¢ woman preéminent in beauty. 


a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the -Ablative may often 
be used indifferently ; but Ayszcal qualities are oftener denoted by the 
Ablative (cf. § 215, note): as, — 

capillo sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), chev have long hair. 

ut capite operto sit (Cato Major 34), ¢o have his head covered (to be of 

covered head), 
1l. Ablative of Price. 
252. The Price of a thing is put in the ablative: as, — 


agrum vendidit séstertium sex milibus, 4e sold the land for 6000 sesterces. 

Antonius regna addixit peciinia (Philip. vii. 15), Antony sold thrones for 
money. 

logos ridiculds: qui eén& poscit (Pl. Stich. 221), jokes: who wants them 
for (at the price of) @ dinner ? 

magno illi ea cunctatio stetit (Liv. ii, 36), that hesitation cost him dear. 

NOTE.— To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty, § 220.6, I. 


258 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 252. 


a. Certain adjectives of Quantity are used in the Genitive to denote 
indefinite value. Such are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pliris, 
min6ris: as, — 

est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 1 5)s it is worth the price (it is of so much). 

mea magni interest, 7/ 7s of great consequence to me. 

illud parvi refert (Manil. 18), this is of small account. 

Verresne tibi tanti fuit (Ver. ii.i. 7) was Verres of so much account to 

you? 

tantone minoris decumae veniérunt (Verr. iii. 106), were the tithes sold for 

so much less ? 

ut te redimas captum quam queas minim6: si nequeas paululd, at quanti 

queas (Ter. Eun. 74), 40 ransom yourself, when captured, at the cheap- 
est rate you can; tf you can’t for a small sum, then at any rate for 
what you can. 

NOTE. — These are really genitives of quality (§ 215. ¢). 

6. The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used in the same way. 
Such are nihil, mothing; assis, a farthing; flocci (a lock of wool), a 
straw. Thus, — 

non flocci facio (Att. xiii. 50), 7 care not a straw. 

utinam ego istuc abs te factum nihili penderem (Ter. ames 94), oh! that J 

cared nothing for this being done by you! 

ego non flocci pendere (Ter. Eun. 411), 7 did not care.a straw. 

¢. With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing given 
in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are: miitare, 
commitare, permitare, vertere. Thus, — 

fidem suam et religionem peciinia commutare (Cluentius 129), to darter 

his faith and conscience for money. : 

vertere fineribus triumphos (Hor. Od. i. 35. 4), 2o change the triumph to 

the funerai-train (exchange triumphs for funerals). 

exsilium patria sede mutavit (Q.C. iii. 7), Ze exchanged his native land 

for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land). 

velox amoenum saepe Lucrétilem mutat Lycaed Faunus (Hor. Od. i. 17. 1), 

nimble Faunus often changes Lyceus for Lucretilis. (He takes Lucre- 
tilis a¢ the price of Lyceus, i.e. he goes from Lyczeus éo Lucretilis. ] 

NOTE. — With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different 
conception of the action: as, — 

ariés ... cum croced mutabit vellera lité (Ecl. iv. 44), the ram shall change 

his fieece for [one dyed with] che yellow saffron. 

d. With verbs of duying and selling the simple ablative of price 
must be used, except in the case of tanti, quanti, pliris, minGris: 
as, — 

quanti eam émit? vili ... quot minis? quadraginta minis. (Pl. Epid. 

51), what did he buy her for? Cheap. For how many mine? Forty. 


§ 253,] Ablative of Specification. 259 


12. Ablative of Specification. 
253. The Ablative of Specification denotes that zx 
respect to which anything zs or 2s done: as, — 


virtiite praecédunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel in courage. 
claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages. 8), dame of one foot. 
lingua haesitantes, voce absoni (De Orat. i. 115), hesitating in speech, 
harsh in voice. 
tanta caritas patriae est, ut eam non sénsii nostro sed salute ipsius méti- 
amur (Tusc. i. go), such is our love of country that we measure it not 
by our own feeling, but by her own welfare. 
sunt enim homineés non ré sed nodmine (Offic. i. 105), for they are men 
not in fact, but in name. 
maior nati, o/der ; minor nati, younger (cf. § 91. ¢). 
infirmus mollisque natura (Lelius 75), weak and yielding by nature. 
paulum aetate progressi (Cat. Major 33), somewhat advanced in age. 
corpore senex esse potuit animo nunquam erit (Cat. Major 38), Ae may 
have been an old man in body, he never will be [old] at heart. 
non solum ré et sententia sed verbis quoque hoc interdictum ita esse 
compositum (Czecin. 86), éhis prohibition was so conceived not only in 
substance and effect, but also in language. 
homo mea sententia prudentissimus (Czecin. 22), @ man, in my opinion, 
very wise. 
equitatu pulsi erant (B. G. vii. 68), chey had been beaten in the cavalry fight. 
NOTE,— To this head are to be referred many expressions where the ablative 
expresses that 7 accordance with which anything is or is done. But as the Romans 
had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to classify all uses of the ab- - 
lative. Hence the ablative of specification is closely akin to that of manner, and to 
‘many ablatives which have been developed froni other fundamental ideas. Thus, — 
meé itire, w7th perfect right; but, ‘med modo, zz my fashion. 
mea sententia, zz my opinion; but also more formally, ex mea sententia. 
[Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative is specification; the 
second, source. } 
propinguitate coniunctos atque nattr& (Lelius 50), closely allied by 
kindred and nature. (Here the ablative is not different in sense from 
those above, but no doubt is a development of means.] 
qui vincit viribus (Lelius 55), who surpasses in strength. (Here it is 
impossible to tell whether viribus is the means of the superiority or 
that iz respect to which one is superior. } 
neque enim alla alia condicidne bella gessérunt (B. G. vii. 77), for on no 
other terms did they carry on wars. 


a. The Supine in -ii, used chiefly with adjectives, is equivalent to an 
ablative of specification (cf. §§ 114. 4, 303): as, — 
mirabile dictu, marvellous to tell. 


NOTE. — In this use of the supine, dative and ablative constructions have, no 
doubt, been confounded. . 


Pal eer eee. we ees 2 ene ee) Ce AP 


260 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§ 254, 255. 


13. Ablative of Place. 


NOTE.—The Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the place 
where and (figuratively) to denote the ¢ime when (a development from the idea of 
place). But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, 
and the place where is usually denoted by the Ablative, In this construction the 
Ablative was, no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became 
associated with in in most cases, 


254. The Ablative is used to denote the place where 
(usually with the preposition in, § 258. ¢). 

a. The ablative of the place where is retained in many idiomatic 
expressions (cf. § 259. a) which have lost the idea of place: as, — 

pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 96), we are in suspense of mind (in our minds). 

socius periculis-vdbiscum aderd (Jug. 85), J will be present with you, a 

companion in dangers. 

premit altum corde dolorem (Ain. i. 209), he keeps down the pain deep in 

his heart. . 

6. 1. Several verbs are followed by the locative ablative. These are: 
acquiésc6, délector, laetor, gaude6, gl6rior, nitor, st6, maned, 
fid6 (confidd), consist, contineor. For dat.with (cdn)fid6, see § 227. 

ndminibus veterum gloriantur (Orat.169), they glory in the names of the 

ancients. [Also, dé divitiis (in virtute, circa rem, aliquid, haec) gloriari.] 
spe niti (Att. iii. 9), 20 rely on hope. 

priidentia fidens (Off. i. 81), rusting in prudence. 

2. The verbals frétus, contentus, and laetus take the locative 
ablative: as, — 

frétus gratia Briti (Att. v. 21), relying on the favor of Brutus. 

laetus praeda, rejoicing in the booty. 

contentus sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly abl. of cause.] 


REMARK. — The ablative with the above verbs sometimes takes the preposition 
in (but fidG in is late): as,— 


in quibus causa nititur (Cel. 25), 0” whom the case depends. 
With several of these verbs the neuter accusative of pronouns is often found. 
14. Ablative Absolute. 
255. A noun or pronoun, with a participle! may be 
put in the ablative, to define the ¢éme or circumstances of 
an action: as, — 





1 In this construction the noun was originally in the Locative Case, and denoted 
circumstance considered as place or time, Afterwards a participle was added to — 
modify the noun, and the two words became.fused in a single idea equivalent to 
that contained in a subordinate clause (cf. ab urbe condita, from the founding of 
the city, lit. from the founded éity), After the construction was established, other 
ablatives not locative no doubt became confounded with the real ablatives absolute. 


a ee enh. eS ee Om rr“w* 49 


§ 255.| Ablative Absolute. 261 


vocatis ad sé undique mercatoribus (B. G. iv. 20), having called to him 
the traders from all quarters (traders having been called). 

quibus rébus cOgnitis Caesar apud milités contionatur (B. C.i. 7), having 
learned this, Cesar makes a speech to the soldiers. 

ac si ill6 sublato depelli a vobis omne periculum iudicarem (Catil. ii. 3), 
and if I thought that with his removal (he being removed) al/ danger, 
etc. 

nondum hieme confecta (B. G, vi. a the winter not yet over. 

compressi conatus nall6 tumulti publice concitatd (Catil. i. 11), the 
attempts were put down without exciting any general alarm. 

ne vobis quidem omnibus ré etiam tum probata(Catil. ii. 4), sézce at 
that time the facts were not yet proved even to all of you. 

impridentibus nostris atque occupatis in munitione castrorum (B.G. v. 
15), while our men were off their guard and busy in the fortification 

_ of the camp. 
fugato omni equitatu (B. G. vii. 68), a// the cavalry being put to flight. 
interfecto Indutiomaro (B. G. vi. 2), upon the death of Indutiomarus. 


a. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the partici- 
ple in the Ablative Absolute construction :1 as, — 
exigua parte aestatis reliqua (B. G. iv. 20), when but a small part of the 


summer was left (a small part of the summer remaining). 
M. Messala et M. Pisone consulibus (id. i. 2), 2 the consulship of Messala 


e _,and Piso (Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso being consuls). [The 


regular way of expressing dates, see § 259. ¢.] 


5. A phrase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as 
ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective: as, — 


incerto quid peterent (Liv. xxviii. 36), as 7¢ was uncertain what they should 
aim at (it being uncertain, etc.). 

comperto vanum esse formidinem (Tac. Ann. i, 66), when it was found that 
the alarm was groundless. 


NOTE. — This construction belongs to later Latin. 


c. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the 
ablative absolute without a substantive: as, — 


consultd et cogitatd (Off. i. 27), 0” purpose and with reflection (the matter 
having been deliberated and thought on). 

sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky (it [being] clear). 

nec auspicato nec litato (Liv. v. 38), with no auspices or favorable 
sacrifice. 

tranquillo, ut aiunt, quilibet gubernatog est (Sen. Ep. 85, 29), i” good 
weather, as they say, any man’s a pilot. 





1 The participle of esse, wanting in Latin (§ bee's a), is used in Sanskrit and 
Greek as in English. 


mn 


262 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 255. 


da. The Ablative Absolute in its developed form often takes the 
place of a Subordinate Clause. In such cases the noun is equivalent 
to a subject, and the other word to the predicate. So may be re- 
placed : — 


1. Temporal clauses (§ 322. ff.): as, — 


patre interfecto, [his] father having been killed. [This corresponds to 
cum pater interfectus esset, when his father had been killed. | 

recentibus sceleris eius vestigiis (Q. C. vii. 1. 1), while the traces of the 
crime were fresh. (Cf. dum recentia sunt vestigia.} 


2. Causal clauses (§ 321): as, — 


at ei qui Alesiae obsidébantur praeterita dié qua auxilia sudrum exspec. 
taverant, cOnsimptd omni friimenté, concilid coact6 cdnsultabant 
(B. G, vii. 77), dat those who were under siege at Alesia since the time, 
etc., had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a 
council (see 5 below), consulted together. [Cf. cum diés praeteriisset, 
etc.] 

Alexander, déspérata pace, ad reparandas virés intendit animum (Q.C. iv. 
6, 1), Alexander, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to 
recruiting his forces. (Cf. cum pacem déspéraret.] 

3. Concessive clauses (§ 313): as, — 

at ed repignante fiebat (consul), immo verd ed fiebat magis (Milon. 
34), Set though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) was likely to be elected 
consul, nay, rather, etc. 


4. Conditional clauses /(§ 304): as, — 


occurrebat ei, mancam et debilem praetiram futuram suam, cdnsule 
Milone (Milon. 25), # occurred to him that his practorship would be 
maimed and feeble, tf Milo were consul. [si Milé consul esset. } 

qua (regione) subacta licebit décurrere in illud mare (Q.C. ix. 3), 7 
this region is subdued, we shall be free to run down into that sea. 

qua quidem détracta (Archias 28), ¢f this be taken away. 


5. Clauses of accompanying circumstance: as, — 


ego haec a Chrysogond mea sponte, rem6dtd Sex. Roscid, quaerd (Rosc. 
A. 130), of my own accord, without reference to Sextus Roscius (S. R 
being put aside), J ask these questions of Chrysogonus. 

nec imperante nec sciente nec praesente domino (Milon. 29), without 
their master’s giving orders, or knowing it, or being present. 


NOTE. — As the English case absolute (the nominative) is far less common 


than the ablative absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in ~ 
ranslation. Thus the present participle is oftenest to be rendered by a relative ~ 
_ clause with when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect — 


active participle in English, These changes may be seen in the following ex- 
ample ;— 


aoe 


§§ 255-57. | 


“At illi, cztermissd spatid, impri- 
dentibus mnostris, atque occupatis in 
miunitiOne castrorum, subito sé ex silvis 
eiécérunt; zmpetuéque in eos facto, qui 
erant in statione pro castris collocati, 
acriter pugnavérunt; duabusgue missis 
subsidid cohvrtibus & Caesare, cum 
hae (ferexigud intermissd loci spatiod 
inter sé) cOnstitissent, novO genere 
pugnae ferterritis nostris, per medids 
audacissimé perriperunt, seque inde 
incolumés recépérunt.” — CA4isAR, B. G. 
Vv. 15. 


Time and Place. 


263 


“But they, having paused a space, 
while our men were unaware and busied 
in fortifying the camp, suddenly threw 
themselves out of the woods; then mak- 
ing an attack upon those who were on 
guard in front of the camp, they fought 
fiercely; and, though two cohorts had 
been sent by Czesar as reinforcements, 
after these had taken their position (Zeav- 
ing very little space of ground between 
them), as our men were alarmed by the 
strange kind of fighting, they dashed 
most daringly through the midst of 
them, and got off safe,” 


[For the Ablative with Prepositions, see § 152.] 


VI.—TIME AND PLACE, 
i. Time. 
256. Time when, or within which, is put in the Ablative; 
time how long in the Accusative: as, — 


1. Ablative:— 


cOonstituta die, on the appointed day; prima luce, at daybreak. 
quota hora, at what o'clock ? tertia vigilia, in the third watch. 
tribus proxumis annis (Jug. 11), within the last three years. 


2. Accusative :— 


diés continuos triginta, for ¢hirty days together. 
cum triduum iter fecisset (B. G. ii. 16), when he had marched three days. 


NOTE.— The ablative of time is /ocative in its origin (§ 254. head-note) ; the 
accusative is the same as that of the extent of space (§ 257). 


a. The Ablative of time within which sometimes takes in, and the 
Accusative of time ow dong, per for greater precision: as, — 


in diebus proximis decem (Sall.), wzthin the next ten days. 
in brevi spatio (Ov. Met. i. 411), within a@ brief space (of time). 
ludi per decem dies (Cat. iii. 20), games for ten days. 


6. Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative: as, — 


militeés quinque horis proelium sustinuerant (B. C.i. 47), the men had sus- 
tained the fight five hours. 


NOTE.—In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the 


- act is done, and it is only implied that the act lasted ¢zrough the period, 





2. Space. 


257. Extent of space is put in the Accusative: as, — 
a 


264 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [ss 257, 258. 


fossas quindecim pedés latas (B. G. vii. 72), érenches fifteen feet broad. 

in omni vita sua quemque a récta cOnscientia transversum unguem non 
oportet ‘discedere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), ¢ all one’s life, one should 
not depart a nails breadth from straightforward conscience. 


NOTE,.— This Accusative denotes the object ¢hrough or over which the action 
takes place, and is kindred with the Accusative of the End of Motion (cf. § 258). 


a. Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality (§ 215. 4): 
4S, — 


vallo pedum duoddecim (B. G. ii. 30), 7x @ rampart of twelve feet (in 
height). 


5. Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Ac- 
cusative; when considered as degree of difference, in the Ablative 
(§ 250): as, — 

quinque dierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), é¢ s distant five days’ march. 


triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), chirty miles below 
that place (below by thirty miles). 


3. Place from Which and End of Motion. 


258. The place from which'is denoted by the Ablative 
with ab, dé, or ex; the place to which (the End of Motion) 
by the Accusative with ad or in: as, — 


1. Place from which : — 


a septentrione, from the north. 

cum a vobis discéssero (Cat. Maj. 79), woken I leave you. 

de provincia decédere, 40 come away from one’s province. 

dé monte, down from the mountain. 

negotiator ex Africa (Ver. ii. 1. 14), a merchant from Africa. 

influxit e Graecia rivulus (Rep. ii. 34), here flowed in a rill from Greece. 

ex Britannia obsidés miserunt (B. G. iv. 38), they sent hostages from Britain. 

Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego (id. iv. 10), the Meuse (flows from) rises 
in the Vosges mountains. 

quas (navis) ex Pictonibus et Santonis reliquisque pacatis regidOnibus con- 
venire iusserat (id. iii. 11), the ships which he had given orders should 
collect from the {country of the] Pictones and the Santoni and from 
the other conquered regions. 





1.Originally all these relations were expressed with all these words by the cases 


alone, The accusative denoted the end of motion as in a certain sense the object — 
of the action (cf. R6mam petiit), andthe ablative in its proper meaning of sepa- — 


ration denoted the place from which, The prepositions, originally adverbs, were 
added to define more exactly the direction of motion, as in ¢e us ward, toward us. 
and by long association became indispensable except as indicated above. 


ay 





‘ 


A 


§258] Place from Which; End of Motion. 265 


2. Place to which: — 


ad finés Hyrcaniae penetrat (Q.C. vi. 4), 2e penetrates to the borders of 
Hyrcania. 

adibam ad istum fundum (Cec, 82), / was going to that estate (cf. § 237. @). 

in Africam navigavit, Le sailed to Africa. 

in Italiam profectus, gone to a 

legatum in TreverOs mittit (B. G . lil. 11), Ze sends his lieutenant into the 
[country of the] 7reveré. 

in Piraea cum exissem (Att. vi. 9, 1), when J had landed at the Pireus. 
[Admitted by Cicero himself to be wrong, the Pireeus being a town 
(see 4, below). The passage is discussed by him in Att. vii. 3.] 


NOTE 1.—In poetry the end of motion is often expressed by the Dative 
(§ 225. b. 3) : as,— 

it clamor caelo (Ain. v. 451), @ shout goes up to the sky. 

NOTE 2.—With the name of a country, ad denotes éo the borders; in, into. 
the country itself. Similarly ab denotes away from the outside; eX, out of the 
interior, Thus ad Italiam pervénit would mean, 4e came to the frontier, regard- 
less of the destination; in Italiam, Ze went to Italy, z.é, to a place within it, to 
Rome, for instance. So ab Itali& profectus est would mean, fe came away 
from the frontier, regardless of the original starting-point; ex Italia, he came 
Jrom lialy, from within, as from Rome, for inst@nce, 


a. The names of towns or small islands from which, as also domus 
and ris, are put in the Ablative without a preposition: as, — 


Roma profectus, having set out from Rome, 

rure reversus, Laving returned from the country. 
Roma abesse, 4o de absent from Rome. - 

domo abire, fo leave home. 


NOTE 1.— With names of towns, etc., ab is often used, commonly to denote 
from the vicinity of: as,— 

ut a Mutina discéderet (Phil. xiv.04), chat he should retire Jrom Mutina 
(which he was besieging). 

erat a Gergovia despectus in castra (B. G. vii. 45), there was from about G. 
a view into the camp, 

profecti a domo (Liv. xl. 33)s setting out from home. 

loca quae a Brundisio propius absunt (Att. viii, 14), places which are 
nearer to Brundisium (nearer from). 


NOTE 2.— The ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place from 
which in certain idiomatic expressions: as, — 

cessisset patria (Mil. 68), he would have left his country. 

patria pellere, to drive out of the country. 

mani mittere, Zo emancipate (let go from the hand). 


Nore 3.— The poets often omit the preposition where it would be required in 
prose: as,—. 


manis Acheronte remissds (Ain. v. 99), che spirits returned from Acheron. 





266 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 258. 


6. The names of towns or small islands fo which as also domus 
and riis, are put in the Accusative without a preposition: as, — 


Romam rediit, Ze returned to Rome. 

Delo Rhodum navigare, Zo sail from Delos to Rhodes. 

rus ibd, J shall go into the country. 

domum iit, Ze went home. [So, suas domds abire, 40 go to their homes.] 


NOTE 1.—In this use d(omum may be modified by a possessive pronoun or a 
genitive. When otherwise modified, domum requires the preposition in, Thus, — 
domum régis (Dei. 17), 40 the king’s house. [But also in M. Laecae 
domum (Cat. i. 8), 40 WZ. Leca’s house.| But, — 
in domum magnam venire, 40 come into a large house. 


NOTE 2.— With the names of towns, etc., ad may be used in the sense of 
towards, to the neighborhood of; .as,— 


ad Alesiam proficiscuntur (B. G. vii. 76), they set out be Alesia, 
ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. vii. 79), they arrive at Alesia (come through to). 
ad Athenas navigare, ¢o se¢ sail for Athens (landing in the harbor). 


NOTE 3.— The general words, urbs, oppidum, insula require a preposition 
in either construction (40 which or from which): as,ad urbem, ab urbe,:ad 
urbem RO6mam, ROmam ad urbem, ex urbe Roma. 

NOTE 4.— Two or more nouns are sometimes expressed after one verb as limits 
of motion (see § 259. 2). 

NOTE 5.— The poets often omit the preposition with any noun: as,— 

Italiam Laviniaque venit litora (Ain. i. 2), Le came to Italy and the Lavin 

ian shores. 

finis Ital6s mittére (id. iii. 440), you shall be allowed to reach the Italian 

boundaries. 

terram Hesperiam veniés (id. ii. 781), you shall come to the Hesperian land. 


REMARK.— The preposition is omitted with the supine in -um (§ 302) and in 
the following old phrases : — 

exsequias ire, ¢o go to the funeral, _infitias ire, fo resort to denial. 

pessum ire, fo go fo ruin. pessum dare, 4o ruin (cf. perdd). 

venum dare, éo sel? (give to sale). [Hence véndere. ] 

venum ire, ¢o de sold (go to sale). [Hence vénire.] 

foras (used as adverb), ou¢: as, foras egredi, 40 go out of doors. 


4. The Place Where. 


c. 1. The place where is denoted by the Ablative with 
the preposition in (Locative Ablative) : as, — 

in hoc urbe vitam degit, he passed his life in this city. 

si in Gallia remaneérent (B. G. iv. 8), if they should stay in Gaul. 

dum haec in Venetis esren. (id. iii. 17), whtle this was going on among 


the Venett. 
oppidum in insula positum ( ae vii. 58), @ cown sinaiee on an island. 








Lee, 


§ 258.] The Place Where. 267 


2. But names of towns and small islands are put in the 
Locative Case. 
This has in the first and the second declension singular the same 


form as the Genitive, in the plural and in tke third declension the 
same form as the Dative or Ablative: as, — 


Romae, a¢ Rome (Roma). Atheénis, a¢ Athens (Athénae). 
Rhodi, a¢ Rhodes (Rhodus). Lanuvi, a¢ Lanuvium. 

Sami, af Samos. Cypri, at Cyprus. 

Tiburi or Tibure, a¢ 7zdur Curibus, a¢ Cures. 

Philippis, a¢ Phzlippi. Capreis, a¢ Capri (Capreae). 


REMARK. — Large islands, and all places when thought of as a ¢erritory and 
not as a docality are treated like names of countries; as,— 


in Sicilia, 7 Sicily. 
in Ithaca lepores illati moriuntur (Plin. H. N., cf. .§ 256. a), in Ithaca 


hares when carried there die. (Ulysses lived at Ithaca, would require 
Ithacae.]} 


NOTE 1.— With all names of places AT, meaning zear (not im), is expressed by. 
ad or apud with the Accusative. Jn the neighborhood of may be expressed by 
circa with the Accusative; among, by apud with the Accusative. Thus,— 


ptigna ad Cannas, the fight at Cannae. 

conchas ad Caiétam legunt (De Or. ii. 22), at Caze¢a (along the shore). 
ad (apud) inferOs, i the world below: (near or among those below). 

ad foreés, at the doors. ad ianuam, at the door. 

apud Graecos, among the Greeks. apud me, at my house. 

apud Solos (Leg. ii. 41), a¢ Soli. circa Capuam, round about Capua. 


NOTE 2.—In citing an author, apud is regularly used; in citing a particular 
work,in, Thus,— 


apud Xenophontem, zz Xenophon. But, — 
in Xenophontis Oeconomico, iz Xenophon’s Giconomicus. 


d. The Locative Case is also preserved in the following common 
nouns : — 


domi (rarely domui), a¢ home. 

belli, militiae (in contrast to domi), abroad, in military service. 
humi, on the ground. ruri, iz the country. 

foris, out-of-doors. terra marique, dy land and sea. 


These are used like names of towns, without a preposition. So 
also, — : 


heri (-e), yesterday. vesperi (-e), 2 the evening. 
infelici arbori (Liv. i. 26), om the ill-omened tree. 


268 Syntax: Construction of Cases.  [§§ 258, 259. 


¢. The locative domf may be modified by a possessive adjective or 
a limiting genitive; but, when it would be otherwise modified some 
. other construction is used instead of the Locative. Thus, -— 


domi Caesaris, af Cesar’s house. 

domi suae vel aliénae, a¢ his own or another's house. But,— 

in Marci Crassi castissima domé (Czlius 9), é che chaste home of Marcus 
Crassus, [Cf. ex Anniana Milonis dom6, § 184. d.] 

f. The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a preposition 

in several constructions : — 

1. Regularly in many indefinite words, such as loc6d, parte: as, — 

quibus loco positis (De Or. iii. 153), when these are set in position. 

qua parte victi erant (Att. ix. 11), 0 the side where they were beaten. But, 

exercitum castris continuit (B. G. i. 48), ke kept his army in camp. 
[Here the construction is influenced by means.] 


2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regu- 
larly when t6tus is used): as, — 

media urbe (Liv. i. 33), i the middle of the city. 

tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 51), 4kroughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily), So,— 

tota Tarracina (De Or. ii. 240), # all Tarracina (cf. ¢. 2, Rem.). 

3. Freely in poetry: as, — 

litore curv6 (Ain. iii. 16), 0” the winding shore. 

antro sécliisa relinquit (id. iii. 446), she leaves them shut up in the cave. 

Epird, Hesperia (id. iii. 503), 1 Epirus, in Hesperia, 

g. The way by which is put in the ablative without a preposition: 
as, — 

via brevidre equités praemisi (Fam. x. 9), J sez? Jer’. the cavalry by a 

shorter road. 


Aegaeo mari traiécit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), 2e crossed by way of the AZgean Sea. 
provehimur pelago (Ain. iii. 506), we satl forth over the sea. 


NOTE. —In this use the way dy which is conceived as the means of passage, 


5. Special Uses of Time and Place. 


259. The =e special uses require to be ob- 
served :— 


a. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of ¢éme when, 
where in English the main idea is rather of d/ace: as, — 

pugna Cannensi (or apud Cannas), #z the fight at Canna. 

ludis ROmanis, a¢ the Roman games. 

omnibus Gallicis bellis, i af the Gallic wars, 


ROE oS Wome & 


§ 259.] Special Uses of Time and Place. 269 


6. In many idiomatic expressions of time, the accusative with ad, in, 
or sub is used. Such are the following: — 


supplicatio decreta est in Kalendas Ianuarias, a thanksgiving was voted for 
the ist of Fanuary. 

conveénérunt ad diem, they assembled at the [appointed] day. 

ad vesperum, ¢7// evening ; sub vesperum, éowards evening. 

sub idem tempus, about the same time. 

sub noctem, at night-fall, 


c. Time during which or within which may be expressed by the 
acc. or abl. of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal numeral: as, — 


quinto die, within [just] four days (lit., on the fifth day). [The Romans 
counted both ends, see § 376. 2] 

regnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years (he is reigning 
now the sixth year). 

But also, —regnavit iam sex annos, he has already reigned for six years. 


d. Distance of time Jefore or after anything is variously expressed : 
as, — 


post (ante) trés annos, post tertium annum, trés post annds, tertium post 
annum, tribus post annis, tertio post anno (§ 250), three years after. 

tribus annis (tertio anno) post exsilium (postquam éiectus est), ¢hree years 
after his exile. 

his tribus proximis annis, w7thiz the last three years. 

paucis annis, a few years hence. 

abhinc annOs tres (tribus annis), ante hos trés annds, éhree years ago. 

triennium est cum (trés anni sunt cum), ¢/ zs three years since. 

octavo meénse quam (see § 262. note 2), che eighth month after. 


é. In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the 
ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition; and the 
phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition. 

The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative 
absolute, often without a conjunction (§ 255. a): as, — 


is dies erat a, d. quintum Kalendas Aprilis L. PisOne A. Gabini6 consulibus 
(B. G. i. 6), Hat day was the 5th before the calends of April (March 
28), in the consulship of Piso and Gabinius. 

in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 7), 20 the 5th day before the calends of Novem- 
ber (Oct. 28). 

xv. Kal. Sextilis, the 15th day before the calends of August (July 18). 
[Full form: quintd decim6 dié ante Kalendas. | 


f. For at, meaning wear (not zz), see § 258. ¢c. note 1. 


NOTE, *- For TO and FROM with names of places, see § 258. 


270 Syntax: Construction of Cases. — [§§ 259, 260. 


g. When motion to a place is implied in English, though not ex- 
pressed, the accusative with or without a preposition must be used in 
Latin: as, — 


coniurati in ciriam convénérunt, the conspirators met in the Senate-house, 
(came together into the Senate-house). 
concilium domum suam convocavit, he called a council at his own house. 


hk. When two or more names of place follow a verb of motion, each 
must be under its own construction. Thus,— 


quadridud quo haec gesta sunt res ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sullae 
Volaterras défertur (Rosc. A. 20), within four days after this was 
done, the matter was reported TO Chrysogonus IN Sulla’s camp AT 
Volaterra. 


VII.—USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 


260. Some Prepositions are used with the Accusative, 
some with the Ablative,! and a few with both. 


NoTE.— For the list of Prepositions, see § 152. 


a. Verbs of placing, though implying motion, take the construction 
of the place zz which. 

Such are: p6n6 and its compounds (except imp6nd), locd, 
collocdé, statu6, cdnstitus, etc. 


qui in séde Ac dom6 collocavit (Paradox. 25), who put [one] tuto his 
place and home. 

statuitur eques Romanus in Aproni convivid (Verr. iii. 62), @ Roman 
knight is brought into a banquet of Apronius. 

insula Delos in Aegaed mari posita (Leg. Man. 55), che zsland of Delos, 
situated in the Augean Sea. 

si in ind Pompéid omnia ponerétis (id. 59), 7f you made —s 
depend on Pompey alone. 

5. Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely 

ex), properly meaning from :? as, — 

a tergo, in the rear. 

a parte Pompeiana, on the side of Pompey. 

a sinistra, on the lefthand. [Cf. hinc, on this side.] 

ex altera parte, ov the other side. 

magna ex parte, iz a great degree (from, i.e. in, a great part). 





1 The force lies strictly with the Case, and the preposition only indicates more 
clearly direction or place. 
2 Apparently the direction whence the sensuous impression comes, 


§§ 260, 261.] Use of Prepositions. 271 
c. Super in the sense of concerning takes the Ablative; in all other 
senses it takes the Accusative: as, — 
hac super ré (Cic.), concerning this thing. 
super tali causa missi (Nep. Paus. 4), sent on such an errand. 
sed hac ré super nimis (Att. x. 8), du¢ more than enough on that point. 
super culmina tecti (En. ii. 695), above the house-top. 
super vallum praecipitari (Jug. 58), 2o be hurled over the rampart. 
super laterés coria indicuntur (B.C. ii. 10), Aides are drawn over the bricks. 
super Numidiam (Jug. 19), deyond Numidia. 
super terrae tumulum (Legg. ii. 66), 0 the mound of earth. 
super vinum (Q. C. viii. 4), over [his] wine. 
NOTE. — The ablative is used in poetry with Super in other senses: as, — 
ligna super foc6 largé reponens (Hor. Od. i. 9. 5), piling logs generously 
on the fire. 
nocte super media (Ain. ix. 61), after midnight. 


d. Subter takes the Accusative, except sometimes in poetry. Thus, 


subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle. But, — 
subter litore (Catull.), delow the shore. 


é. Tenus (which follows its noun) regularly takes the Ablative, but 
sometimes the Genitive (§ 223. ¢). Thus, — 
Tauro tenus (Deiot. 36), as far as Taurus. 


capulo tenus (Ain. ii. 553), up to the hilt. 
Corcyrae tenus (Liv. xxv. 24), as far as Corcyra. 


NOTE.— Tenus is frequently connected with the feminine of an adjective pro- 
noun, making an adverbial phrase: as,— 


hactenus, 2é¢herto ; quatenus, so far as. 
dé hac re hactenus, so much for that (about this matter so far). 


261. Many words may be construed either as Preposi- 
tions or as Adverbs: thus, — 


a. The adverbs pridié, postridié, propius, proximé,! usque — 
also (less frequently) the adjectives propior and proximus — may be 
followed by the Accusative (cf. §§ 207. 4, 234. ¢): as,— 


pridié Nonas Iunias (Cic.), the day before the Nones of Fune (June 4). 

postridie ludds (Att. xvi. 4), che day after the games. 

ipse propior montem suds collocat (Jug. 49), 4e stations his men nearer 
the hilt. 

proximé Pompeium sedebam (Att. i.14), 7 sa¢ next to Pompey. [Cf. proxi- 
mus Pompéium sedébam. } 





1Cf. prope, § 152. 4, 


272 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 261. . 
pars insulae quae est propius sdlis occasum (B. G. iv. 28), the part of the 
island which is nearer the west (sunset). 

terminds usque Libyae (Just.), Zo the bounds of Libya. 

NotTE.—Pridié and postridie take also the Genitive (§ 223. ¢. note 2). 
Propior, propius, proximus, and proxime, take also the Dative, or the 
Ablative with ab. Usque is commonly followed by ad. Thus,— 

propius Tiberi (Nep.), zearer the Tiber. 

propius ab urbe (Plin.), zearer the city. 

usque ad mare, Zo the sea. 


b. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may be used as prepositions 
and take the ablative (so perhaps intus, § 153, note) : as, — 


rem créditdri palam populo solvit (Liv. vi. 14), Ze paid the debt in the 


presence of the people. 

haud procul castris in modum minicipii exstriicta (Tac. H. iv. 22), ot 
Jar from the camp, built up like a town. 

simul nobis habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. v. 10. 29), close among us dwells 
the barbarian. 


Norte.— But simul regularly takes Cum; procul is usually followed by ab_ 
in classic use; and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late. 


Thus, — 


procul 4 mari, far from the sea. 
nobiscum simul, az the same time with ourselves. 


c. The adverb clam is found with the Accusative or Ablative, 
rarely with the Genitive or Dative : as, — 


clam matrem suam (Plaut.), wzknown to his mother. 
clam mihi (id.), 2 secret from me. 

clam patris (id.), wzthout his father’s knowledge. 
clam vobis (B. C. ii. 32), without your knowledge. 


ad. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as adverbs. 
So especially — 
1. Ante and post in relations of time: as, — 


quae paulo ante praecepta dedimus (Cic.), a “ttle while ago, etc. 
post tribus diébus, tree days after (cf. § 259. d). : 
2. Adversus, contra, circiter, prope: as, — : 


adversus resistere, to hold out in opposition. 
Aeolus haec contra, thus 4olus in reply. ¢ 
circiter pars quarta, about the fourth part. 
prope exanimatus, zearly lifeless. 

3. In general those ending in -a: as, — 
forte fuit iuxta tumulus, ¢here happened to be a mound close by. 


Notr.— Clam and versus are by many excluded from the list of prepositions, 2 
[For the use of Prepositions in Composition, see § 170.] 4 





_§§ 262, 263.] Use of Prepositions. 3 273 


262. Some prepositions or adverbs which imply Com- 
parison are followed, like comparatives, by quam, which 
may be separated by several words, or even clauses. 


neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), nor did he let 
him go until he gave a pledge. 
post diem tertium quam dixerat (Mil. 44), the third day after he said it. 


NOTE 1.—Such words are ante, prius, post, pridié, postridié; also 
magis and prae in compounds: as,— 


Cat6 ipse iam servire quam pugnare mavult (Att. vii. 15), Cato himself by 
this time would rather be a slave than fight. 

si iam principatum Galliae obtinére n6n possint, Gallérum quam R6mano- 
rum imperia praeferre (B. G.i. 17), ¢f chey can no longer hold the chief 
rank in Gaul, [they] prefer the rule of Gauls to that of Romans. 


NOTE 2.— The ablative of time (§ 256) is sometimes followed by quam in the 


_ sate way: as,— 


octavo ménse quam (Liv. xxi. 15), within eight months after, etc. 


263. For 4 or ab with the Ablative of Agent, see 
§ 246. 


NOTE. — The following prepositions sometimes follow their nouns: ad, Citra, 
circa, contra, dé, 6 (ex), inter, iixta, penes, propter, tltra, tenus 
(regularly), and occasionally others: as, — 


[usus] quem penes arbitrium est et itis et ndrma loquendi (Hor. A. P. 72), 
custom, under whose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech. 
cuius 4 me corpus est crematum, quod contra decuit ab illo meum (C. M. 
84), whose body I burned (on the funeral pile], whzle on the contrary 

(lit. contrary to which) mine should have been burned by him. 


274 Syntax: Lhe Verb, 


CuarTer II].— Syntax of the Vero. 
I.—MOODS AND TENSES. 


NOTE. — The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods 
(expressing the manner in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (express- 
ing the ime of the action). There is no difference in origin between mood and 
tense. The moods, except the infinitive, are only specialized tenses; and hence the 
uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes 
have modal significations (compare indicative in apodosis, § 311. ¢; future for 
imperative, § 269. 7); and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunc- 
tive in future conditions, § 307. 4, and notice the want of a future subjunctive 
§ 110. a). 

The parent language, besides the imperative mood, had two distinct forms with 
modal signification: the Subjunctive, expressing an action as willed or vividly con- 
ceived ; and the Optative, expressing an action as wished for or vaguely conceived. 

Of these, the Subjunctive was developed from a Present Tense, by which an 
action continued in present time was represented as future: compare in English, 
the army marches to-morrow. Such an action came to be conceived on the one 
hand as command: compare the military order, the regiment will advance; and 
on the other as a possibility or a mere conception: compare axydody will under- 
stand that, 

The Optative has had a similar development. It was originally a tense-form 
compounded with YA, and probably denoted past time (cf. Eng. shou/d and wou/d) , 
but like the subjunctive, it has acquired the two meanings of conception and com- 
mand, 

It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the 
subjunctive or the optative was deliberately used decause it denoted conception or — 
possibility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development — 
from more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by ~ 
this process the mood used comes to have in each case a special meaning, which is — 
afterwards habitually associated with it in that construction. Thus in English the — 
expression [ would do this has become equivalent to a mild command; while by © 
analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condition contrary to fact (§ 308): _ 
if I were you, etc. By further analysis, J would go is seen to have meant, originally, © 
I should have wished (or I did wish) to go. 

In Latin, the original subjunctive and the optative became confounded in form 
and meaning, and were merged in the present subjunctive. Then new tense-forms 
of the subjunctive were formed by composition; and to these the original as well 
as the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see § 265). All the 
independent uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for. 

The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen in every case from the employ- 
ment of some independent subjunctive construction in co-ordination with a main 
statement. In time the two clauses have so grown together as to form a single 








1 For the signification of these tense-endings, see pp. 120, 121, 


§ 264.] The Indicative Mood. 275 


compound sentence, and the subjunctive member is felt to have assumed subordinate 
relations toward the other clause. The original meaning of the mood has disap- 
peared, and a new meaning has arisen by implication. Thus, misit lég&t6s qui 
dicerent, 4e sent ambassadors to say (2.¢. who would say in a supposed case).1 
Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, tolle hanc 
opini6nem, lictum sustuleris (remove this notion, you will have done away 
with grief: te. if you remove, etc.). 

The infinitive is originally a verbal noun, modifying a verb like other nouns: 
vol6d vidére, lit. “I wish for-seeing"”: compare English what went ye out for to 
see? But in Latin it has been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for 
tense, and some proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for 
other moods, ; 

The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various 
ways, which are treated under their respective heads below, 

The proper verbal constructions may be thus classified : — 


1. INDICATIVE: Direct Assertion or Question ({$ 264). 
Wish, Exhortation, Command, Question (§ 
265. a). 
(1. Purpose (with ut, n&é) (§ 317). 
2, SUBJUNCTIVE:. 2. Result (with ut, ut ndn) (§ 319). 
3. Characteristic (Relative Clause) (§ 320). 
5. Dependent 4. Time (with cum) ($ 325). 
afte, re Future (less vivid) (§ 307. 4,c). 

|  (Chap.v.): 5: Conditions { Contrary tu: Fact (4 908); 
6, Intermediate (Indirect Discourse) (§ 341). 
7- Indirect Questions or Commands (§§ 334, 
L 339}. 

1. Direct Commands (often subjunctive) (§ 269). 
3. IMPERATIVE: {2 Statutes, Laws, and Wills (} 269. 2). 

3. Prohibitions (early or poetic use) (§ 269. note). 
r a, Subject of esse and Impersonal verbs (§ 270). 
b. Objective 1. Complementary Infinitive (§ 271). 


{ a. Independent: | 








Canstenctionuses ™ Indirect Discourse (with subject-accusa- 
tive) (} 272). 
1. Purpose (poetic or Greek use) (§ 273). 
a aig 2. Exclamation (with subject-accusative) (§ 
ses; 


4. INFINITIVE: 4 





274). 
3. Historical Infinitive (§ 275). 


i.— MOODS. 
I. THE INDICATIVE. 
264. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or 
questions when there is no modification of the verbal idea 
except that of time. 


a. The Tenses of the Indicative generally denote time, as Jresent, 
past, or future, with reference to the speaker (§ 276 ff.). 





1 Compare note on the development of syntaxis from parataxis, p. 164. 


276 | Syntax: The Verb, [§§ 264, 265. 


NOTE. — Time thus denoted is often called absolute time. See uses.of temporal 
clauses, § 323: 


4. The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom would 
suggest the Subjunctive: as, — 


longum est, z# would be tedious [if, etc.]. 
satius erat, 2¢ would have been better (if, etc.]. 
persequi possum, / might follow up [in detail]. 


c. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the Imperative 


(§ 269. 7). 


d. The indicative is used in some kinds of conditions (see §$ 306, 
308). 
_ @. The place of the indicative in narration is sometimes supplied by 
the Historical Infinitive (§ 275). 

f. In Indirect Discourse a narrative clause has its verb in the Infini- 


tive (see §§ 272, 336). 
II]. THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

265. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal 
idea with some modification? such as is expressed in Eng- 
lish by auxiliaries, by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunc- 
tive (§ 112. 3). 


The uses of the subjunctive are independent or depend- 
ent (cf. head-note, p. 274). 


a. The Subjunctive is used ézdependently to express — 
1. An Exhortation, Concession, or Command (ortatory, § 266). 
2. A Wish (Optative, § 267). 
3. A Question of Doubt or Deliberation (Deliberative, § 268). 


NOTE. — These constructions (with the exception of some forms of Deliberative 


Subjunctive) are merely different phases of the same use, 
REMARK. — In the conclusion ({agodosis) of Conditional Sentences, the subjunc« 


tive is grammatically independent, though logically it depends on some condition ~ 


expressed or implied (§ 304). The so-called Potential Subjunctive comes under 
this head (see § 311. 2). 


6. The subjunctive is used in defendent clauses to express — 





1 These modifications are of various kinds, each of which has had its own | 
special development (compare introductory note, p. 274). The subjunctive in — 
Latin has also many idiomatic uses (see clauses of Result and Time), where the ‘ 


English does not modify the verbal idea at all, but expresses it directly; but in — 


these cases the Latin merely takes a different view of the action, and has devel- 


oped its construction differently from the English. 


* 


”~ 


: 


se 


§§ 265, 266.] FHlortatory Subjunctive. 277 


1. Purpose (/7val, § 317). 

2. Result (Comsecutive, § 319). 

3. Characteristic (§ 320). 

4. Time (Zemforal, § 325). 

5. Indirect question (§ 334). 

6. Condition: future or contrary to fact (§§ 307. 2, c, 308). 


¢. The subjunctive is also used with Particles of Comparison (§ 312), 
and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse (§ 336). 


1. Hortatory Subjunctive. 
_ 266. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express an 


\exhortation, a command, a concession, or a condition. 


\. The Present tense refers to future or indefinite time; 
the Perfect, to past time or completed future time; the 
Imperfect, to present. or past time; the Pluperfect, to com- 
pleted past time: as, — 


hos latrones interficiamus (B. G. vii. 58), Ze¢ us kill these robbers. 

caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae (Of. i. 122), et them 
shun excess and cherish modesty. 

Epicurus hoc viderit (Ac. ii. 19), le¢ Epicurus look to this. 


Note.— The simple subjunctive of exhortation and command takes the pres- 
ent tense, less commonly the perfect. The Perfect represents an action as com- 
pleted in future time; but in most cases is hardly to be distinguished from the 
Present. Other tenses are used in some varieties of this construction (see ¢, 
note 1 and e). ; 

REMARK. — The negative particle used with the hortatory subjunctive is né, 


a. The Second Person is used only of an zudefinite subject, except in 
prohibition, in early Latin, and in poetry (cf. § 269. 0). Thus, —. 


iniurias fortunae, quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas (Tus. v. 118) 
the wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, leave behind by flight. 

exoriare aliquis ultor (Ain. iv. 625), rise, some avenger. 

isto bono itare dum adsit, cum absit né requiras (Cat. Maj. 33), use this 

' blessing while it is present; when it is wanting, do not regret it. 

ne conferas culpam in me (Ter. Eun. 388), don’t lay the blame on me. 

nihil ignoveris (Mur. 65), pardon nothing. 

doceas iter et sacra Ostia pandas (/En. vi. 109), show us the way and lay 
open the sacred portals. 


6. In Prohibitions addressed to a definite person, the perfect is more 
common than the present (cf. § 269. @): as,— 


278 Syntax: The Verb. [§ 266. 


hoc facitd: hdc ne féceris (Div. ii. 127), thou shalt do this; thou shalt not 
do that. 

tu ne quaesieris (Hor.), do not inguire. 

nec mihi illud dixeris (Fin.i.25), axa do not say that to me. 


c. The hortatory subjunctive is especially used to express a CONCES- 
SION, sometimes with ut, né, quamvis, quamlibet, or similar words 


(cf. § 313. @): as,— 


fuerit aliis: tibi quando esse coepit (Ver. ii. i. 37), suppose he was [so] zo 
others, when did he begin to be to you? 

ut rationem Plato nullam afferret (Tusc. i. 49), chough Plato adduced no 
reasons. 

nemo is unquam fuit: né fuerit (Or. 101), there never was such a one [you 
will say]: granéed (let there not have been). 

né sit summum malum dolor, malum certé est (Tus. ii. 14), Brauer that 
pain és not the greatest evil, at least it is an evil. 

quamvis scelerati illi fuissent (De Or. i. 230), however guilty they might 
have been. 

quamvis comis in amicitiis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 80), amiable as he may 
have been in keeping his friendships (let him have been as amiable as 
you please). 


NOTE 1,— In this use the Present refers to fuéure or indefinite time, the Imper- 
fect to present or past time (the concession being impliedly untrue), the Perfect to 
past or completed future time, the Pluperfect to completed action in past time (the 
concession being usually untrue). 

NOTE 2.— The Indicative is often used in concessions (see § 313). 


REMARK. — Concessions with s} and its compounds belong to Protasis (see 
¢ 313. ¢); those with licet, to Substantive Clauses (see § 313. 4). 


d. The hortatory subjunctive may be used to denote a PRovIso (see 
§ 314)- 

é. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive denote 
an unfulfilled obligation in past time: as, — 


morerétur, inquies (Rab. Post. 29), Ze should have died, you will say. 

potius diceret (Off. iii. 88), e should rather have satd. 

né poposcissés (Att. ii. 1), you should not have asked. 

saltem aliquid de pondere détraxisset (Fin. iv. 57), af least he should have 
taken something from the weight, 


we eo 


ee cas. ee 


REMARK. — This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from its _ 


use in apodosis (fofential, § 311.a). The difference is indicated by the translation, 
should or ought (not would or might). 


NoTE.—In this use the Pluperfect differs from the Imperfect only in more 
clearly representing the time for action as momentary or as past. 


o 


§ 267.] Optative Subjunctive. 279 


2. Optative Subjunctive. 


267. The Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The 

present tense denotes the wish as Zosszb/e, the imperfect as 

‘unaccomplished in present time, the pluperfect as wxaccom- 
plished in past time. Thus,— 


ita vivam (Att. v. 15), so may J live (as true as I live). 

né vivam si scio (id. iv. 16), J wish J may not live if [ know. 

di te perduint (Dei. 21), the gods confound thee! 

valeant, valeant, civés mei; valeant, sint incolumés (Mil. 93), farewell 
[he says], my fellow-citizens ; may they be secure from harm. 

di facerent sine patre forem (Ov. Met. viii. 72), woudd that the gods allowed 


me to be without a father (but they do not)! ( 


4 


a. The Perfect in this use is antiquated: as, — 


male di tibi faxint (Plaut. Curc. 131), may the gods do thee a mischief. 
quod Omen di averterint (Philip. xii. 14, in a religious formula), and 
may the gods avert this omen, 


4. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the particles uti 
. (ut), utinam, 6 si: as, — 


ut pereat positum robigine telum (Hor. Sat. ii, 1), may the weapon un 
used perish with rust, 

falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi.), J wisk J may le a false prophet. 

utinam P. Clodius viveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive. 

utinam mé mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. i. 3), would you had seen me dead. 

6 si angulus ille accédat (Hor. Sat. fi. 6.8), of / if that corner might 
only be added. 


NOTE 1.— The subjunctive with uti, etc., was originally deliberative, meaning 
how may I, etc. (4 268). The subjunctive with 6 si ( poetica?) is a protasis ($ 312 
note); SI alone is sometimes used to express a wish in the same way: as,— 

si nunc se nobis ille aureus ramus ostendat (Ain. vi. 187), ¢f now that 

golden branch would only show itself to ust 

NOTE 2.— The subjunctive of Wish without a particle is rarely“found in the 
imperfect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse (§ 286): 
as,— 

ac venerata Cerés ita culm6 siirgeret alto (Hor. Sat. ii. 2. 124), and Ceres 

worshipped [with libations} that so she might rise with tall stalk. [Di- 
rect: ita sirgas.] 


c. Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a subjunctive or 
infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive: as, — 
dé Menedém6 vellem verum fuisset, dé regina velim vérum sit (Att. xv. 


4), about Menedemus I wish tt had been true; about the queen 1 
hope it may be. 


280 Syntax: The Verb. [s§ 267-69 


ndllem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10), J wish the time never had come. 
mallem Cerberum metuerés (Tus. i. 12), 2 had rather have had you afraid 
of Cerberus (I should have preferred that you feared C.). 
NOTE, — Velim, etc., in this use, are strictly apodoses with the protasis omitted 
(§ 311.4). The ¢hing wished is really a substantive clause used as object of the 
verb of wishing (§ 331. 4). 


[For Concessive Subjunctive, see § 313; for Potential Subjunctive, see § 311.] 


S. Deliberative Subjunctive. 


268. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying 
(1) doubt, indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing’s 
being done: as, — 


quid hdc homine facias? quod supplicium dignum libidini éius inveniads 
(Verr. ii. 40), what are you to do with this man? what fit penalty can 
you devise for his wantonness ? 

an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 3), what, should I not have come? 

quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3), what was J to say? 

mihi umquam bonorum praesidium defutirum putarem (Mil. 94), could ] 
think that the defence of good men would ever fail me? 

quis enim célaverit ignem (Ov. Her. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame} 


REMARK.— This use is apparently derived from the Hortatory Subjunctive: 
quid faciamus? = faciamus [aliquid], quid? Zet us do— what? Once estab- 
lished, it was readily transferred to the past: quid taciam? what am / to do? 
quid facerem? what was / to do? Questions implying impossibility, however, 
cannot be distinguished from Apodosis (cf. § 311. @). 


Note.— The Deliberative Subjunctive is sometimes called Duditative. For 
tenses, see § 266. 


II. THe IMPERATIVE. 


\/ 
Avi The Imperative is used in Commands and En- 
treaties: as, — 


cdnsulite vobis, prospicite patriae, cénservate vos (Cat. iv. 3), have a care 
for yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves. 

dic Marce Tulli sententiam, Marcus Tullius, state your opinion, 

te ipsum concute, examine yourself. 

vive, valéque (Hor. Sat, ii. 5. 110), farewell, bless you (live and be well)! 

miserére animi non digna ferentis (Ain. i. 144), pity @ soul bearing un- — 
deserved woes. 

NoTE.—In Negative Commands (frohiditions) the Present Imperative with 

NG is used by early writers and the poets: as,— 

né time (Plaut. Curc. 520), don’t be afraid. ,' 

nimium née crede coldri (Ecl. ii. 17), érust not too much to complexion. 

equo né crédite (Ain. ii. 48), crust not the horse. . 

[For the Future Imperative with né in laws and formal precepts, see @, 3, below.) 


§ 269.} The Imperative; Prohibition. 281 


a. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose: — 

i. By né with the second person of the Perfect Subjunctive: as, — 

né territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), don’t be alarmed. 

né vos quidem iudices ei qui mé absolvistis mortem timueritis (Tusc. i. 
98), nor must you fear death, you judges thai, etc. 

2. By n6li with the infinitive: as, — 


ndli putare (Fam. xiv. 2), do wot suppose (be unwilling to suppose). 
nolite cogere sociOs (Ver. ii.1. 82), do sot compel the allies. 


NOTE. — The poets frequently use instead of nO other words of similar mean- 


ing (cf. § 273. ¢): as,— 


parce pias scelerare manus (/En. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands. 
cetera mitte loqui (Hor. Epod. 13. 7), forbear to say the rest. 
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), do not inguire. 


3. By cave with or without né (colloquially fac né) with the Present 


or Perfect Subjunctive? (§ 266. 4): as,— 


cave putes (Att. vii. 20), don’t think. 

cave dixeris, don’t say so. 

cave faxis (Ter. Heaut. 187), don’t do é2, 

fac née quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. 11), see chat you attend to nothing else. 
NOTE. — Other negatives sometimes take the place of né: as,— 

non dubitaveris (Sen. Q. N. i. 3, 3), you must not doubt. 

nihil ignoveris (Mur. 65), grant no pardon (pardon nothing). 


é. General Prohibitions addressed to no definite person are regularly 


expressed by the Present Subjunctive with né (cf. c, below): as, — 


dénique isto bono utare dum adsit: cum absit né requiras (Cat. Maj. 33), 
én short, use this good while present; when wanting, do not regret it. 


NOTE,— The poets and early writers sometimes use the Present Subjunctive 


with né in prohibitions not general: as,— 


molestus né sis (Plaut. Most. 771), don’t be troublesome. 
né sis patruus mihi (Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 88), don’t de a [harsh] uncle to me. 


¢. The ¢hird person of the imperative is antiquated or poetic: — 


ollis salus populi supréma lex est, He safety of the people shall be their 
first law. 

justa imperia suntd, eisque civés modesté parentd (Leg. iii. 6), det there 
be lawful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them. 

NOTE.—In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead (§ 266): as, 


haec igitur Jéx in amicitia sanciatur (Ll. 40), et this law then be laid 
down in case of friendship. 





PERSP ie, OS Ded + 
4 


1 In prohibitions the Subjunctive with n6 is hortatory; that with Cave is an 


object clause (originally hortatory, cf. § 331.4, Rem.}. 


282 Syntax: The Verb, [§ 269. 


a@. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where there is 
a distinct reference to future time: viz.,— 


1. In connection with some form that marks a condition precedent 
(as a future, a future-perfect, or an zmperative). Thus, — 


Phyllida mitte mihi, meus est natalis, Iolla; cum faciam vitula pro frugibus 
ipse venit6 (Ecl. iii. 76), send Phyllis to me, it is my birthday, Jollas ; 
when I [shall] sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come yourself. 

dic quibus in terris, etc., et Phyllida solus habét6 (id. iii. 107), ze// in 
what lands, etc., and have Phyllis for yourself. 


z. With adverbs or other expressions of Time: as, — 
cras petité, dabitur (Pl. Merc. 769), ask o-morrow [and] i¢ shall be given. 
3. In general directions, as Precepts, Statutes, and Wills: as, — 


cum valetudini consulueris, tum cénsulitd navigationi (Fam xvi. 4), when 
you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing. 

is iuris civilis custos est6 (Leg. iii. 8), det Aim (the preetor) de the guardian 
of civil right. 

Borea flante, ne arat6, semen né iacitd (Plin. H. N. xviii. 77), when the 
north wind blows, plough not nor sow your seed. 


é. The verbs scid, meminf, and habe (in the sense of consider), 
regularly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present: as, — 
filiolG me auctum scité (Att. i. 2), darn that I am blessed with a little boy, 
sic habét6, mi Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro. 
de palla memento, amabo (Pl. Asin.), pray, at remember about the 
gown. 


jf. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative; and 
quin (why not?) with the Present Indicative may have the force of a 
command: as, — 
si quid acciderit novi, faciés ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you will let me know 
tf anything new happens. . 
quin accipis (Ter. Heaut. 832) ? here, cake it (why not take it?). 


g. Instead of the simple Imperative, ctira, fac, or velim, followed 
by the subjunctive with or without ut (§ 331. f. R.) is often used, 
especially in colloquial language: as, — 


cura ut Romae sis (Att. i. 2), take care to be at Rome. 

fac ciirés ut ores (Ter. Eun. 500), do try to induce [him]. 

fac ut valetudinem cures (Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of your 
health. (Cf. rus ed. fac, amabo (Ter. Eun. 533), /’m going into the 
country. Do, please. 

domi adsitis facite (id. 506), de at home, do. 

eum mihi velim mittas (Att. viii. 11), 7 wesk you would send it to me. 


§§ 269, 270.] _ The Infinitive. 283 


#. In the Indirect Discourse all imperative forms of speech are rep- 


resented by the Subjunctive (see § 339). 
z. The Imperative sometimes has the force of a Conditional Clause 


(see § 310. 3). 


IV. THe INFINITIVE. 


NOTE.— The Infinitive is properly a noun denoting the action of the verb ab- 
stractly. It differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points: 
(1) it admits in many cases of the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by ad- 
verbs, not by adjectives; (3) it governs the same case as its verb; (4) it is limited 
to special constructions. 

The Latin Infinitive is the dative (or locative) case of such a noun and was 
originally used to denote Purpose; but it has in many constructions developed into 
a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use. 

In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may take a Subject-Accusative (§ 240. /), 
originally the object of another verb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus iubed 
t6 val6re is literally, / command you for being well (cf. substantive clauses, § 330). 


1. Infinitive as Subject, etc. 

270. The Infinitive, with or without a subject-accusa- 
tive, may be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the 
Subject, (2) in Apposition-with the subject, or (3) as a 
Predicate Nominative. Thus, — 

1. Subject: as, — 


dolére malum est (Finib. v. 84), 40 suffer pain is an evil. 

bellum est sua vitia ndsse (Att. ii. 17), 77s @ fine thing to know one’s own 
faults. 

pulchrum est benefacere rei publicae (Sall. Cat. 3), 2¢ és @ noble thing to 
benefit the state. 

motos praestat componere fluctus (/En. i. 135), é¢ zs better to calm the 
troubled waves. 

hoc facere illum mihi quam prosit nescio (Att. ii. 1 6), Ldon’t know how 
his doing this benefits me. 


2. In Apposition with the Subject: as, — 


proinde quasi iniuriam facere id demum esset imperid iti (Sall. Cat. 12), 
just as if this,—to commit injustice, were to use power. [Here facere 
is in apposition with id.] 


3. Predicate Nominative: as, — 


id est convenienter nattrae vivere (Finib. iv. 41), chat is to live in con- 
Jormity with nature. [Cf. ati in the last example. ] 


NOTE 1.—An infinitive may also be used as Direct Object in connection with 
@ Predicate Accusative, or as Appositive with such Direct Object: as, — 


284 Syntax: The Verb. [§ 270. 


istic ipsum n6n esse cum fueris miserrimum putd (Tus. i. 12), for J chink 
this very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been, 
miserari, invidére, gestire, laetari, haec omnia morbos Graeci appellant 
(Tuscul. iii. 7), 2o feel pity, envy, desire, IG Ee these things the 
Greeks call diseases. 


NOTE 2.— An Appositive or Predicate noun used with an infinitive in any of 
these constructions is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a subject ex- 
pressed or not. Thus,— 


non esse cupidum peciinia (Parad. 51), to de free from desires (not to be 
desirous) zs money in hand. 


a. 1. The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and 
similar verbs. (See examples above.) 


Nore, — In this use the abstract idea expressed by the infinitive is represented 


as having some quality or belonging to some thing. 


2. But occasionally, especially in less careful writers and in poetry, 
the infinitive is used as the subject of verbs which are apparently more 
active in meaning: as, — 


quos omnis eadem cupere, eadem Odisse, eadem metuere in unum coéegit 
(Jug. 31), all of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the 
same things has united into one. 

ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes emollit mores (Ov. ex P. ii. 9. 48), faith- 
fully to have learned liberal arts softens the manners. 

posse loqui éripitur (Ov. M. ii. 483), the ower of speech is taken away, 

non cadit invidére in sapientem (Tuscul. iii. 21), the sage ts not liable to 
envy (to envy does not fall upon the sage). 

istiic nihil dolére non sine magna mercéde contingit (Tuscul. iii. 12), chat 
apathy is not to be had except at great cost (does not fall to one’s 
lot). 


&. The infinitive is used with many impersonal verbs and expressions, 
partly as subject and partly as complementary infinitive (§ 271). 

Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, 
piget, necesse est, opus est, etc. 


id primum in poetis cerni licet (De Or. iii. 27), chis may be seen first in 
poets. 

reperiebat quid dici opus esset (Bru. 215), Ae found what needed to be said. 

haec praescripta servantem licet magnifice vivere (Off. i. 92), one who 
observes these precepts may live nobly. 


Cato negat ius esse qui miles non sit piignare cum hoste (Off. i. 37), q 


Cato says it is not right that one who is not a soldier should fight with 
the enemy. 
necesse est mori (Tusc. ii. 2), 2¢ ts necessary to die. 





ee a 








PRE Se iA RS & 


$§ 270, 271.] Complementary Injinitive. 285 


quid attinet gloriosé loqui nisi cOnstanter loquare (Finib. ii. 89), what 
good does tt do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently ? 
non lubet enim mihi déplordre vitam (Cato Major 84), for dt does not 
please me to lament my life. | 
neque mé vixisse paenitet (id. 84), Z do not feel sorry to have lived. 
iam pridem gubernare mé taedebat (Att. ii. 7, 4), 7 Aad long been tired of 
being pilot. 
NOTE 1,— These are not generally real cases of the infinitive used as subject, 
but approach that construction. 
NOTE 2.— For the subject of such infinitives, and for predicate nouns or 
adjectives agreeing with the subject, see §§ 271. ¢, 272. a. 


c. Rarely the infinitive is used exactly like the accusative of a 
noun: as, — 


beaté vivere alii in alid, vos in voluptate pdnitis (Finib. ii. 86), a happy 
life different [philosophers] dase on different things, you on pleasure. 

quam multa...facimus causa amicorum, precari ab indigno, supplicare 
etc. (Lelius 57), Low many things we do for our friends sake, ask 
favors from an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc. 

nihil exploratum habeas, né amare quidem aut amari (Lzlius 97), you 

have nothing assured, not even loving and being loved. 

NOTE. — Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper 
accusative use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from 
that of the examples under ¢. Thus, — 

avaritia ...superbiam, crudélitatem, deds neglegere, omnia venalia habére 

édocuit (Sall. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride, cruelty, to neglect the gods, 
and to hold everything at a price. 


2. Complementary Infinitive. 


271. Verbs which imply another action of the same sub- 
ject to complete their meaning take the infinitive without 
a subject-accusative: as,— 


hoc qued dicere (Cat. Maj. 32), ¢his J can say. 

mitto quaerere (Rosc. Am.), J omit to ask. 

vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 58), 7 fear to praise a@ man to his 
face (one who is present). 

Oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. 1), J beg you will make haste to come. 

oblivisci non possum quae volo (Finib. ii. 104), J cannot forget that 
which I wish. ‘ 

désine me id docére (Tuscul. ii. 29), cease to teach me that. 

audeo dicere, / venture to say. 

loqui posse coepi (Cic.), 7 began to be able to speak. 


Such are verbs denoting ¢o be able, dare, undertake, remember, for- 


pet, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, 


fear, and the like. 


286 Syntax: The Verb. [§ 272 


NOTE.— The mark of this construction is that no Subject of these infinitives is 
in general admissible or conceivable. But some infinitives usually regarded as 
odjects can hardly be distinguished from this construction when they have no 
subject expressed. Thus vol6 dicere and vol6 mé dicere mean the same 
thing, / wesh to speak ; but the latter is object-infinitive, while the former is not 
apparently different in origin and construction from que6 dicere (complementary 
infinitive), and again vol6 eum dicere, / wish him to speak, is aneaeuged dif: 
ferent from either, 


a. Many verbs take either a subjunctive clause or a complementary 
infinitive, without difference of meaning. Such are verbs signifying 
willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, 
and the like (cf. § 331): as, — 


student excellere (Of. i. 116), they aim to excel. 

cum statuissem scribere ad te aliquid (Off. i. 4), when I had resolved to 
address sometht ing to you. 

istum exhérédare in animo habebat (Rosc. Am. 52), ke Aad it in wind to 
deprive him of the inheritance. 


NOTE 1.— With some of these verbs an infinitive with subject-accusative may 
be used as od7ect, taking the place of a complementary infinitive. In this use the 
subject of the infinitive and that of the main verb are of course the same. Thus, — 

cupio mé esse clémentem (Cat. i. 4) = cupio esse clemens, J desire to be 

merciful (cf. § 331. 4, note). 

NOTE 2.—Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are 
identical in meaning with others which do; as, — 

quos tuéri débent déserunt (Of. i. 28), they forsake those whom they should 

protect. ; 
non lubet fugere aveO pignare (Att. ii. 18, 3), J ave no desire to run 
away, I’m anxious to fight. 


&. Some verbs of these classes —iube6 and veté regularly —- may 
take (as object) the infinitive with a subject? different from that of the 
main verb (see § 331. @): as, — 

signa inferri iubet (Liv. xlii. 59), Ze orders the standards to be advanced. 


Pompéius...rem ad arma dédiici studebat (B. C. i. 4), Pompey was 
anxious to have matters come to open war. 


c. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary infinitive 
takes the case of the subject of the main verb: as, — 


fierique studébam €ius pridentia doctior (Lzlius 1), 7 was eager to become 
more wise through his wisdom. 





1 This construction, though in many cases different from the two preceding 
shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of the uses under § 271 is the infini- 


’ 


a 


ee eg ee 


tive strictly Subject or Object; but its meaning is developed from the original one ~ 2 


of purpose (cf. § 273. a). 





§§ 271, 272.| Jufinitive with Subject-Accusative. 287 


scid quam soleas esse occupatus (Fam. xvi. 21), J know how busy you 
usually are (are wont to be). 

brevis esse laboro obsciirus fi6 (Hor. A. P. 25), J struggle to be brief, 1 
become obscure. 

NOTE, — If the construction of the main verb is impersonal, a predicate noun 

or adjective is in the accusative (but for licet, etc., see § 272, a. 2). Thus,— 

peregrini officium est minimé in aliena esse républica ciridsum (Of. i. 125), 

at ts the duty of a stranger to be by no means curious in a foreign state. 


d. For the infinitive in poetry instead of a substantive clause of 
purpose, see § 331. g. 


3. Infinitive with Subject-Accusative. 


272. The Infinitive, with Subject-Accusative, 1s used 
with verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, 
telling, and perceiving (Indirect Discourse, § 336):1 as, — 

dicit montem ab hostibus ten6ri (B. G. i. 22), Ze says that the hill ts held 

by the enemy. (Direct: mons ab hostibus tenétur. ] 

REMARK.— The Infinitive Clause may be—~1. the Direct Object of the verb: 
as, Caesarem adesse niintiavit, te reported that Cesar was present; 2. the 
Subject of the same verb in the passive; as, Caesarem adesse nintiatum 
est, it was reported that Cesar was present; 3. the Predicate Nominative (or 
Appositive) with words like fama, rumor, etc.: as, rumor erat Caesarem 
adesse, there was a report that Cesar was present (cf. Ain. iii. 295). 

a. 1. With certain impersonal verbs and expressions that take the 
infinitive as an apparent subject (§ 270. 4), the personal subject of the 
action may be expressed — 

1. By a dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase: or, 

2. By an accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive. Thus, 

rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. i. 7), they ask that it be allowed them 

to do this. 

si licet vivere eum quem Sex. Naevius non volt (Quinct. 94), ¢f zt zs allowed 

a man to live against the will of Sextus Nevius (whom S. N, does not 
wish). 

quid est tam secundum natiiram quam senibus émori (Cato Major 71), 

what is so much in accordance with nature as for old men to die ? 

exstingui homini sud tempore optabile est (id. 85), 7¢ zs desirable for a 

man to die at the appointed time. 


2. With licet regularly, and other verbs occasionally, a predicate 
noun or adjective following the infinitive may be in the dative: as, — 





1 The Infinitive may thus represent, in izdirect discourse, a finite verb in direct 
discourse, admitting all the variations of the verb except number and person, 


288 Syntax: The Verb, [§§ 272, 273. 


licuit esse 6tids6 Themistocli (Tuscul. i. 33), Zhemistocles might have 
been inactive (it was allowed to T. to be inactive). 

mihi neglegenti esse non licet (Att.i.17), J weust not be negligent, [But 
also neglegentem. | 

cur his esse liberds non licet (Flacc. 71), why ts it not allowed these men 
to be free? 

non est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc. 33), é¢ és nor necessary 
for all to speak standing. 

expedit bonds esse vobis (Ter. Heaut. 388), z¢ és for your advantage to 
be good. 

mediocribus esse poétis ndn hominés non di concessére (Hor. A. P. 372), 
neither gods nor men have granted to ordinary men to be poets. 


NOTE. — When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite (oxe, anybody), 
a predicate noun or adjective must be in the accusative (cf. § 271. ¢. note): as,— 


vel pace vel bello clarum fieri licet (Sall. Cat. 3), one can become illustrious 
either in peace or in war, 


é. In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in 
the indirect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main 
verb: as, — 


vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. 7), @ good and wise man 
says he is prepared, etc. [In prose: ait sé esse paratum.]_ . 

sensit medios délapsus in hostés (Ain. ii. 377), he found himself fallen 
among the foe. [In prose: sé esse délapsum. } 


4. Infinitive of Purpose. 


273. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original 
meaning of Purpose. 


a. The infinitive is used after habe6, d6, ministré, in isolated 
passages instead of a subjunctive clause: as, — 


tantum habeo pollicéri (Fam. i. 5),s0 much I have to promise. [Here 
the more formal construction would be quod pollicear.]} 

ut Iovi bibere ministraret (Tusc. i. 65), Zo serve Fove with wine (to drink). 

meridie bibere dato (Cato R. R. 89), géve (to) drink at noonday. 


6. Paratus, suétus and their compounds (used as adjectives) take 
the infinitive, like the verbs from which they come: as, — 


id quod parati sunt facere (Quin. 8), chat which they are ready to do. 

adsuefacti superari (B. G. vi. 24), used to being conquered. 

curru succédere suéti (Ain. iii. 541), accustomed to being harnessed to the 
chariot, 

copias bellare consueétas (B. Afr. 73), forces used to fighting. 








§ 273.] Infinitive of Purpose. 289 


NOTE.— These words more commonly in prose take the gerund or gerundive- 
construction (§ 296 ff.) either in the Dative, the Genitive, or the Accusative with ad, 
Thus, — 

alendis liberis sueti (Tac. Ann. xiv. 27), accustomed to supporting children. 

insuetus navigandi (B. C. iii. 49), usused to making voyages. 

corpora insuéta ad onera portanda (id. i. 78), dodies unaccustomed to carry 

burdens. 


¢. In poetry and later writers almost any verb may have the infini- 
tive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take it in 
prose: as, — 

furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15. 27), Ze rages to find thee. [A forcible 

way of saying cupit (§ 271. @).] 

saevit exstinguere nomen (Ov. M, i. 200), he rages to blot out the name. 

fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13) forbear to ask (cf. § 269. a. 2. note). 

parce scelerare (Ain. iii. 42), forbear to pollute. 


@. Many adjectives take the infinitive in poetry following a Greek 
idiom: as, — 


durus comp6nere versiis (Hor. Sat. i. 4. 8), harsh in composing verse. 

cantari dignus (Ecl. v. 54), worthy to be sung. [In prose: qui cantétur, ] 

fortis tractare serpentis (Hor. Od. i. 37. 26), brave to handle serpents. 

periti cantare (Ecl. x. 32), skélled in song. 

faciles aurem praebére (Prop. ii. 21. 15), ready to lend an ear. 

nescia vinci pectora (Ain. xii. 527), hearts not knowing how to yield, 

té videre aegroti (Plaut. Trin. 75), sick of seeing you. 

é. The poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express 

purpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction: as, — 

loricam donat habére vird (Ain. v. 262), he gives the hero a breastplate to” 
wear, [In prose: habendam.] 

filius tum introiit vidére quid agat (Ter. Hecyra 345), the son then went 
in to see what, etc. [In prose: the supine visum. ] 

non ferro Libycds populare Penatés venimus (/En. i. 527), we have not 
come to lay waste with the sword the Libyan homes. 

NOTE.—So rarely in prose writers of the classic period. 


/- For the infinitive used instead of a substantive clause of purpose, 
see § 331. a-g. 

NoTE.— For tempus est abire, see § 298, note, 

g. Rarely in poetry the infinitive is used to express resu/é: as, — 


fingit equum tenera docilem cervice magister ire viam, etc. (Hor. Ep. i. 
2. 64), makes the horse genile so as to go, etc. 

hic levare ... pauperem laboribus vocatus audit (Hor. Od. ii. 18. 38) , he 
when called, hears, so as to relieve, etc. 


290 Syntax: the Verb. | [§§ 273-75, 


NOTE, — These poetic constructions (¢-g) were no doubt or'ginally regular and 
belong to the Infinitive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case (p. 283, head-note). 
They had been supplanted, however, by other more formal constructions, and were 
afterwards restored through Greek influence. 


#. In late or poetic usage the infinitive occasionally occurs as a pure 
noun limited by a possessive or other adjective: as, — 


nostrum vivere (Pers. Sat. i. 9), our défe (to live). 
scire tuum (id. 27), your knowledge (to know). 


§. Exclamatory Infinitive. 


274. The Infinitive, with subject-accusative,! may be 
used in Exclamations (cf. § 240. Z): as, — 


té in tantas aerumnas propter mé incidisse (Fam. xiv. 1), elas/ that you 
should have falien into such grief for me. 

méne incepto désistere victam (Ain. i. 37), what! J beaten desist from my 
purpose? 


NOTE, — The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this construction 
with their ordinary distinction of time. 


6. Historical Infinitive. 


275. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect 
Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the nomi- 
native: as, — 


tum Catilina pollicéri novas tabulas (Sall. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised 
abolition of debts (clean ledgers). 

ego instare ut mihi responderet (Ver. ii. 188), 7 kept urging him to 
answer mie. 

pars cédere, alii insequi; neque signa neque Ordinés servare; ubi 
quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac prépulsare; arma, téla, 
equi, viri, hostés atque cives permixti; nihil consilio neque imperi6 
agi; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51), @ part give way, others press on; 
they hold neither io standards nor ranks; where danger overtook, there 
cach would stand and fight; arms, weapons, horses, men, foe and 
friend, mingled in confusion; nothing went by counsel or command; 
chance ruled all. 


NOTE.—This construction is not strictly A2storzcal, but rather descriptive, and 
is never used to state a mere historical fact. 





1 This construction is elliptical; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect Dis- — 


course, though no verb of saying, etc., appears, or perhaps is thought of (compare 
the French dire gue). Passages like hancine ego ad rem n&tam miseram 
mé memoré&bé6 (Plaut. Rud, 188)? point to the origin of the construction, 














§ 276. Tenses. 2901 
9 


ll.—TENSES, 


NOTE.— The number of possible Tenses is very great. For in each of the 
three times, Present, Past, and Future, an action may be represented as going on, 
completed, or beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite 
(aoristic) ; as determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself 
so determined but as relative to some time which is determined; and the past and 
future times may be near orremote. ‘Thus a scheme of thirty or more tenses might 
be devised. 

But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no 
language finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious 
distinctions, according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme : — 


1. DEFINITE (fixing the time of the action), 2, INDEFINITE, 
INCOMPLETE, COMPLETE. NARRATIVE. 
PRESENT: a. J am writing, 5. [ have written, n. 1 write. — 
PAST: B. J was writing. e. [had written, 6. J wrote. 


FUTURE: ¥. / shall be writing. (¢ I shall have written, 1. I shall write. 


Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other dis- 
tinctions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense 
- to express a and 7, a Perfect to express 6, an Aorist to express 9, a Future to 
express Y and !, and an Imperfect to express 8, The Latin, however, confounded 
the Perfect and Aorist in a single form (the Perfect scripsi), thus losing all distinc- 
tion of form between 6 and @ and probably in a great degree the distinction of 
meaning. ‘The nature of this confusion may be seen by comparing dixi, dicavi, 
and didici (all Perfects derived from the same root, DIC), with @decéa, Skr, 
adiksham, 5é5e1xa, Skr. didega. Latin also developed two new forms, those for 
€ (scripseram) and ¢ (scripserd), and thus possessed six tenses, as seen in 
} 115. 

The lines between these six tenses in Latin are not hard and fast, nor are they 
precisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corre- 
sponding to J have written (0) is used for those corresponding to / am writing (a) 
and / write (n) in a slightly different sense, and the form corresponding to / kad 
written (€) is used in like manner for that corresponding to / was writing (8). 
Again, the Latin often uses the form for J shall have written (¢) instead of that for 
/ shall write («). Thus n6vi, / have learned, is used for J know; cbnstiterat, 
he had taken his position, for he stood; COgnOver6, J shall have learned, for J shall 

be aware. 


I. TENSES OF INCOMPLETE ACTION. 
1. Present (General Use). 


276. The Present Tense denotes an action or state 
(1) as now taking place or existing ; and so (2) as incomplete 
in present time, or (3) as zudefinite, referring to no par- 
ticular time, but denoting a general truth. Thus, — 


senatus haec intelligit, consul videt, hic tamen vivit (Cat. i. 2), che 
Senate knows this, the consul sees it, yet this man lives. 

etiam nunc mé ducere istis dictis postulas (Ter. And. 644), even now you 
are expecting, etc. | Be 


292 : Syntax: The Verb. [§ 276. 


tibi c6ncéd6 meas sédés (Divin. i. 104), 7 give you my seat (an offer 
which may or may not be accepted). 

exspectO quid velis (Ter. And. 34), 7 await your pleasure (what you 
wish). 

tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 22), you arrange a case, 
he arrays an army. [The present is here used of regular employ- 
ment. | 

minora di neglegunt (Nat. D. iii. 86), the gods disregard trifles. [Of a 
general truth. 

obsequium amicos, veritas odium parit (Ter. And. 68), flattery gains 
friends, truth hatred. [General truth.] 


a. The Present, with expressions of duration of time, especially iam 
diii, iam diidum, denotes an action continuing in the present, but 
begun in the past (cf. § 277. 6): as,— 

iam diu igndr6d quid agas (Fam. vii. 9), for a@ long time. [have not known 

what you are doing. 

te iam dudum hortor (Catil. i. 12), 7 have long urged you. 

patimur iam multos annos (Verr. v. 126), we suffer now these many years. 

[The perfect would imply, we o longer suffer.] 

anni sunt octoO cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 82), z¢ 2s mow eight years 

that this case has been in hand. 

annum iam audis Cratippum (Off. i. 1), for a year you've been a hearer of 

Cratippus. 

NOTE 1.—In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect 
in English. The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the begin- 
ning and leaves the coritinuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the con- 
tinuance and leaves the beginning to be inferred. Compare: he has long suffered 


(and still suffers) with & : still suffers (and has suffered) long. 
NOTE 2.— Similarly the Present Imperative with iam didum indicates that 


the action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long ago (cf. the 
Perfect Imperative in Greek) : as, — 


iam dudum siimite poenas (Ain. ii. 103), exact the penalty long delayed. 

5. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or begun in 
present time, but never completed at all (Conative Present, cf. § 277.¢): 
as, — 


Ce ee 


Nig? 


Sala 


iam iamque mani tenet (Ain. ii. 530), and now, even now, he attempts to — 


grasp him. 


dénsés fertur in hostis (id. ii. 511), 4e starts to rush into the thickest of the — 


foe. 


décernd quinquaginta diérum supplicationés (Phil. xiv. 29), Z move for 


Jifty days’ thanksgiving. [Cf. senatus décrévit, che senate ordained. | 


¢. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry, is often 


used for the Future: as, — 


imusne séssum (De Or. iii. 17), sha// we take a seat? (are we going to sit ?) 


§ 276.] Present Tense. 293 


haud miité factum (Ter. And. 40), 7 do not wish to change it (1 am not 
trying to change). 

quod si fit pered funditus (id. 244), ¢/chis happens, [am utterly undone. 

hodié uxdrem dicis (id. 321), ave you to be married to-day ? 

abin hinc in malam rem (id. 317), w7zdl you be off? go and be hanged! 

si pered hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (Ain. iii. 606), 7f 7 perish, it 
will be pleasant to perish at the hands of men (cf. § 307. a, note). 

ecquid mé adiuvas (Clu. 71), won’? you give me a little help? 

in ius vocd te. noned. non is (Pl. As. 480)? J summon you to the court. 
I wow t go.. You won't? 


Nore, — EG and its compounds are especially frequent in this use. (Cf. where 
are you going to-morrow? and the Greek eft in a future sense.) 

REMARK.— For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under €ondi- 
tions (§ 307), cum (} 328), antequam (§ 327.2), dum (§ 328), and the De- 
liberative Subjunctive ($ 268). 


2. Historical Present. 


d. The Present in lively narrative is often used for the Historical 
Perfect (Historical Present): as, —- 


affertur nuntius Syracusas; curritur ad praetorium; Cleomenés, quam- 
quam nox erat, tamen in publico esse non audet; inclidit sé domi 
(Verr. v. 92), the news is brought to Syracuse; they run to head- 
quarters; Cleomenes, though it was night, does not venture to be abroad; 
he shuts himself up at home. 


NOTE.— This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining past 
events as going on before our eyes (repraesentatio). 


3. Present with dum. 


é. Dum, w/e, regularly takes the Present Indicative in reference to 
past events. 

In translating, the English imperfect must generally be used. 
Thus, — 


haec dum aguntur, interea Cleomenés iam ad Elori litus pervénerat (Verr. 
v. 91), while this was going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down 
to the coast at Elorum. 

hoc dum narrat, forte audivi (Ter. Heaut. 272), J happened to hear this 
while she was telling tt. 


NOTE,—A past tense with dum (usually so ong as) makes the time emphatic 
by contrast. But a few irregular cases of dum with a past tense occur where no 
contrast is intended. Thus, — 


nec enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. Maj. 79), 
while I was with you, you couldn’t see my soul. [Here the time when 
he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.] 


2904 Syntax: The Verb. [§§ 276, 277. 


coorta est pugna, par dum cénstabant Ordinés (Liv. xxii. 47), @ conflict 
began, well matched as long as the ranks stood firm. , 

But, —dum oculds hostium certamen averterat (id. xxxii. 24), while the 
struggle kept the eyes of the enemy turned away. 

dum unum adscendere gradum conatus est, venit in periculum (Mur. 55), 
while he atlempted to climd one step [in rank] he fell into danger. 


f. The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works are 
extant: as,— 


Epicirus véro ea dicit (Tus. ii. 17); but Epicurus says such things. 

apud illum Ulixes lamentatur in vulnere (Cid. 49), i him (Sophocles) 
Ulysses bewails over his wound. 

Polyphemum Homerus cum ariete colloquentem facit (Tuscul. v. 115), 
fHlomer brings in (makes) Polyphemus talking with his ram. 


4. Imperfect. 


277. The Impertect denotes an action or a state -as 
continued or repeated in past time: as, — 


hunc audiébant antea (Man. 13), they used to hear of him before. 

Socrates ita cénsébat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 72), Socrates thought so 
(habitually), exzd so he spoke (then). 

prudens esse putabatur (Lelius 6), he was (generally) chought wise. 
[The perfect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state of 
things. } 

jamque rubéscébat Auréra (Ain. iii. 521), and now the dawn was blushing, 

ara vetus stabat (Ov. M. vii. 1), a old altar stood there. 

NoTE.— The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived 
as iv progress or a state of things as actually observed, Hence in many verbs it 
does not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus réx erat and réx fuit may 
often be used indifferently ; but the former descrides the condition while the latter 
only states it. The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of 
statement. Hence the Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite. 
Thus:— 

Aedui graviter ferébant, neque legatos ad Caesarem mittere audébant 

(B. G. v. 6), the Aidui were displeased, and did not dare, etc. 
[Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But, — 

id tulit factum graviter Indutiomarus (id. v. 4), Judutiomarus was dis- 

pleased, etc. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.] 

aedificia vicosque habébant (id. iv. 4), hey had buildings and villages. 


REMARK.— The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to past time. 
Hence all the meanings which the present has derived from the continuance of the 
action, belong also to the imperfect in reference to past time (see details below). 


. The Imperfect is used in descriptions: as, — 


erant omnino itinera duo... m6ns altissimus impendébat (B. G, i. . 6), 
there were in all two ways ...a very high mountain overhung. 


a a 


~~ 


Ff 
7 


& 


§ 277.] | Imperfect Tense. 295 


6. With iam dit, iam didum, and other expressions of duration 
of time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the 2 but 
begun at some previous time (cf. § 115. a. 2): as, — 


iam dudum flébam (Ov. M. iii. 656), 7 had been weeping for a long time. 

copias quas diii comparabant (Fam. xi.13), che forces which they had long 

been getting ready. 

NoTE.—In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English Plu- 
perfect. Compare the Present in similar phrases (§ 276. a). 

c. The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (/ucepizve 
Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended (Conative Imperfect) 
(cf. § 276. 6): as,— 

in exsilium @iciébam quem iam ingressum esse in bellum videbam* (Cat. 

ii. 14), was I sending (i.e. trying to send) zvto exile one who TI saw had 
already gone into war ? 

hunc igitur diem sibi proponeéns Milo, cruentis manibus ad illa augusta 

centuriarum auspicia veniébat (Mil. 43), was Milo coming (z.e. was it 
likely that he would come), etc.? 

si licitum esset veniébant (Ver. v. 129), chey were coming if it had been 

allowed (they were on the point of coming, and would have done 
so if, etc.). 

NOTE.— To this head may be referred the imperfect with iam, denoting the 
beginning of an action or state: as, — 

iamque arva tenébant ultima (Ain. vi. 477), and now they were just 

getting to the farthest fields. 


d. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the 
present discovery of a fact already existing: as, — 


O ti quoque hic aderas (Ter. Ph. 858), of! you are here too. 

ehem pater mi, tu hic eras (Plaut.), what! you here, father ? 

ah miser! quanta labérabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27. 19), unhappy boy, 
what a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it]! 


é. The Imperfect is often used in dialogue by the comic poets where 
later writers would employ the Perfect: as, — 


ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hic suam (Plaut. Trin. 956), 
to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property. 

praesagibat animus frustra me ire quom exibam domo (Plaut. Aul. 222), 
my mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain. 

NOTE.—So also, in conversation, the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf. as / 

was a-saying) : as,— 

at medici quoque, ita enim dicébas, saepe falluntur (Nat. D. iii. 15), for 
that was what you were saying just now. 

haec mihi fere in mentem veniébant (id. ii. 67, 168), chzs zs about what 
occurred to me, etc. [In a straightforward narration this would be 
vénérunt. | 


206 Syntax: The Verb. [§§ 277-79. 


Ff. For the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis contrary to fact, see 
§ 308. 5. 
g. The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the 
English auxiliary could or would: as,— 
itaque (Damoclés) nec pulchrés illos ministratdrés adspiciébat (Tuscul. 
v. 62), therefore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves. [In this 
case did not would not express the idea of continued prevention of 
enjoyment by the overhanging sword. } 
nec enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum vidébatis (Cato Major 79), 
Sor, you know, while I was with you, you could not see my souk. [Here 
the Perfect would refer only to one moment.) 


h. For the Epistolary Imperfect, see § 282. 


5. Future. 
278. The Future denotes an action or state that will 
occur hereafter. 
a. The Future sometimes has the force of an Imperative (see 


§ 269. /'). | 

&. The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Latin 
where in English futurity is sufficiently expressed by the main clause: 
as,— 

cum aderit videbit, when he is there he will see (cf. § 325. €). 

sanabimur si volémus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish 


(cf. § 307. a). 


Il. THE TENSES OF COMPLETED ACTION. 
1. Perfect. 


279. The Perfect denotes an action either as ow com- 
pleted (Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some 
undefined point of past time (Hzstorical or Aoristic Perfect). 
Thus, — : 


(2) ut ego féci, qui Graecas litteras senex didici (Cat. Maj. 26), as J have 

done, who have learned Greek in my old age. 
diuturni silenti finem hodiernus diés attulit (Marc. 1), his day has put an 
end to my long-continued silence. 

(2) tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vére suscépit, media 
aestate confécit (Man. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the 
end of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsummer. 

NOTE, — The distinction between these two uses of the perfect, which is repre- 
sented by two forms in most other Indo-European languages, was almost if not 
wholly lost to the minds of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account 
of the marked distinction in English (see also § 115. ¢). 


| ee eg ee ke 


4 
nd 
. a 
: 
b 
= 
a 

P} 





§ 279.] Perfect Tense. ; 207 


a. The perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that a 
thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists: as, — 


fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus (Cat. i. 3), here was once such 
virtue in this commonwealth, 

habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 87), Ze had, he has no longer. 

filium habeo ... immo habui; nunc habeam necne incertumst (Ter. 
Heaut. 92), 7 have @ son, no, [had one; whether I have one now or 
not is uncertain. _ 

fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (/En. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, 
Troy is no more. 


' 8. The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general 
truth (§ 276), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause refer- 
ring to time antecedent to that of the main clause: as, — 


qui in compedibus corporis semper fuérunt, etiam cum soliti sunt 
tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have always been in the 
fetters of the body, even when released move more slowly. 

haec morte effugiuntur, etiam si non événérunt, tamen quia possunt 
evenire (id. 86), these things are escaped by death even if they have 
not [yet] happened, etc. 

simul ac mihi collibitum est, praestd est imagd (N. D.i. 108), @s soon as J 
have taken a fancy, the image is before my eyes. 


NOTE. — This use of the perfect is especially common in the protasis of general 
conditions in present time (§ 309. ¢). 


c. The perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially with 
negatives (Guomic Perfect): as,— 
qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fécitque (Hor. A. P. 412), he 
who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things. 
non aeris acervus et auri dédixit corpore fébrés (id. Ep. i. 2, 47), che pile 
of brass and gold removes not fever from the frame. 
NOTE.— The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time; but its use implies 
that something which never did happen in any known case, never does happen, and 


never will (cf. the English “ Maint heart never won fair lady”); or without a nega- 
tive that what Zas once happened will a/ways happen under similar circumstances, 


a. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying a 
negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred: as, — 


dicébat melius quam seripsit Horténsius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better 
than he wrote. (Here the negative is implied in the comparison: 
compare the use of quisquam, illus, etc. (§ 202. ¢), and the French 
ne after comparatives and superlatives. } 


¢. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the incom- 
plete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning. 


298 Syntax: The Verb. [§§ 279-81. 


Such are the preteritive verbs Gdi, / hate; memini, 7 remember ; 
novi, / know; cOnsuévi, / am accustomed,} with others used preteri- 
tively, as vénerat (= aderat, he was at hand, etc.) (see § 143, note). 
Thus, — 

qui diés aestiis maxim6s efficere consuévit (B. G. iv. 29), which Ni geners 

ally makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make). 

cuius splendor obsolévit (Quinct. 59), whose splendor is now all faded 

(has become old). 

REMARK. — Many other verbs are occasionally so used: as, — 

dum oculos certamen averterat (Liv. xxxii. 24), while the contest had 

turned their eyes (kept them turned). [Here averterat = tenébat.] 


2. Pluperfect. 


280. The Pluperfect is used (1) to denote an action or 
state completed in past time; or (2) sometimes to denote 
an action in indefinite time, but prior to some past time 
referred to: as, — 


(1) loci natura erat haec, quem locum nostri castris délégerant (B..G. ii. 18), 
this was the nature of the ground which our men had chosen for a 
camp. 

Viridovix summam imperi tenebat earum omnium civitatum quae déféce- 
rant (id. iii. 17), Viridovix held the chief command of aul those 
tribes which had revolted. 

(2) neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. iii. 16), dat 
when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done. 

quae si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, tum fert alacri- 
tatem (Tusc. iv. 35), ¢f2¢ (desire) ever has gained what it had [previ- 
ously] desired, then it produces joy. 


a. For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see § 282. 


3. Future Perfect. 
281. The Future Perfect denotes an action as com- 


pleted in the future: as, — 


ut sémentem féceris, ita metés (De Or. ii. 65), as you sow (shall have 
sown), so shall you reap. 

carmina tum melius cum vénerit ipse canemus (Ecl. ix. 67), then shall we 
sing our songs better, when he himself has come. 

si illius insidiae claridrés hac luce fuerint tum dénique obsecrabo (Mil. 
6), when the plots of that man have been shown to be as clear as day: 
light, then, and not till then, shall I conjure you. 





1 Cf, détestor, reminiscor, sci6, soled. 


$§ 281-84.] pistolary Tenses; Tenses of Subjunctive. 299 


ego certé meum officium praestiterd. (B. G. iv. 25), / at least will have 
done my duty (i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I will 
be found to have done it, whatever the event). 


REMARK. — The Future Perfect is used with much greater exactness in Latin 
than in English, and may even be used instead of the Future, from the fondness of 
the Latins for representing an action as completed: as, — 


quid inventum sit paulo post viderd (Acad. ii. 76), what has been found 
out I will see presently. 

qui Antonium oppresserit bellum taeterrimum confécerit (Fam. x. 19), 
whoever crushes (shall have crushed) Axdéony will om (will have 
finshed) @ most loathsome war. 


NOTE. — For the future perfect in future conditions, see § 307. ¢. 


III. EpistoLARY TENSES. 


282. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect 
may be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for any 
past tense, as if the letter were dated at the time it is 


supposed to be vecetved: as, — 

neque tamen, cum haec scribébam, eram nescius quantis oneribus premerére 
(Fam, v. 12), zor while I write this am I ignorant under what bur- 
dens you are weighed down. 

ad tuas omnes [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att. ix. 10), 7 [have] 
answered all your letters yesterday. 

cum quod scriberem ad té, nihil haberem, tamen has dedi litteras (Att. ix. 
16), shough I have nothing to write you, still I write this letter. 


NOTE,— In this use these tenses are called the Epistolary Imperfect and Pluper- 
fect. The epistolary tenses are not used with any uniformity, but only when atten- 
tion is particularly directed to the ¢ime of writing. (So especially scribé6bam, 
dabam, etc.), 


IV. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

283. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent 
Clauses denote time in relation to the time of the speaker. 
The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time, 
the Imperfect to either past or present, the Perfect to either 
Suture or past, the Pluperfect always to fast. 


284. In Dependent Clauses the tenses of the Subjunc- 
tive were habitually used in certain fixed connections de- 
termined by the time of the main verb and the time of 
the dependent verb together. 


aa ae 


mid 


ig 


300 Syntax: The Verb. (§§ 285, 286 


NoTE.— The tenses of the Subjunctive were originally used in Dependent 
clauses (as in Independent), each with its own time in relation to the point of view 
of the speaker; but in consequence of the natural tendency of language to refer all 
the parts of a complex sentence to one time,—namely, that of the speaker,— the 
connections in which these tenses were used became fixed. Hence the rules for the 
Sequence of Tenses, These are by no means rigid, but allow many varieties, as is 
natural from their origin. 


Sequence of Tenses. 

285. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent. 
clauses follow special rules for the SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 

With reference to these rules all tenses when used in 
Independent clauses are divided into two classes, — primary 
and secondary. ; 

1. Primary. The grimary tenses include all forms that express 
present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future 
Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Present 
and Future Imperative. 

NoTE. — The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary, but see § 287. a. 

2. SECONDARY. The secondary tenses include all forms that refer to 
past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Indicative, 
the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the Historical Infinitive. 

NOTE 1.— To these may be added certain forms less commonly used in Inde- 
pendent Clauses. Such are: (1) Primary: Present Infinitive in Exclamations,; 
(2) Secondary: Perfect Infinitive in Exclamations (see § 287. a. note). 


NOTE 2,— For the Historical Present, see § 287. ¢; for the Imperfect Subjunc- 
tive in Apodosis, see § 287. g. 


286. The following is the general rule for the SEQUENCE OF TENSES . 


In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main © 
clause is followed by the Present or Perfect in the depend- 
ent clause, and a secondary tense by the Imperfect or 
Pluperfect : as, — 


scribit ut nos moneat, 2e writes fo warn us. 

scribet ut nods moneat, Ze will write to warn us. 

scribe (scribito) ut nds moneas, write that you may warn us. 

scripsit ut nods moneret, he wrote to warn us.. 

scribit quasi oblitus sit, Ze wrétes as if he had forgotten. 

scripsit quasi oblitus esset, Ae wrote as if he had forgotten. 

rogo quid facturus sis, 7 ask what you are going to do. 

NOTE, — The beginner must observe that the rule affects only the tenses of the 
Subjunctive in dependent clauses. The tenses of the other moods and those of the 
Subjunctive in independent constructions (as in apodosis contrary to fact, § 308) 
are not affected by the sequence of tenses. (But cf. §§ 338. a. note 2, 339. note 2.) 


§§ 286, 287, | Seguence of Tenses. 301 


REMARK, — In applying the rule for the sequence of tenses, observe (1) whether 
the main verb is (a) primary or {4} secondary, (2) whether the dependent verb is 
to denote completed action (z.e. past with reference to the main verb) or incom- 
plete (z.e. present or future with reference to the main verb). Then— | 

(a) If the leading verb is rimary, the dependent verb must be in the Present if 
it denotes izcomplete action, in tle Perfect if it denotes completed action, 

(4) If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in the Jmper- 
fect if it denotes zxcomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it denotes completed action, 
Thus, ~ 

he writes (primary) ¢o warn (incomplete) ws, scribit ut nos moneat. 

Z ask (primary) what you were doing (now past), rogo quid féceris. 

Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at the time referred 
to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or Pluperfect. 
Thus, — 

I ask what you wilt have accomplished, rogo quid perfeceris. 

he asked what he would have accomplished, rogavit quid perfecisset. 


287. In the Sequence of Tenses some special points 
are to be noted :— 


a. The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but 
allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the 
writer’s mind. Thus, — 


ut satis esset praesidi provisum est (Cat. ii. 26), provision has been made 
that there should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence. } 

addixi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possétis (Verr. i. 2), 
I have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to 
foreign nations. {Secondary sequence. } 

est enim res iam in eum locum addiicta, ut quamquam multum intersit 
inter eOrum causas qui dimicant, tamen inter victorias non multum 
interfuturum putem (Fam. v. 21, 3), for affairs have been brought to 
such a pass that, though there is a great difference between the causes of 
those who are fighting, still I do not think there will be much difference 
between their victories. [Primary sequence.] 

ea adhibita doctrina est quae vel vitidsissimam naturam excolere possit 

(Q. Fr. i. 1, 7), such instruction has been given as can train even the 

faultiest nature. [Primary sequence.]} 


NOTE,— The Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the same rule: as,— 
adeon rem redisse patrem ut extiméscam (Ter. Ph. 153), ¢o think that 
things have come to such a pass that I should dread my father. 
6. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to 
denote any past action. Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, — 
1. A Perfect Definite: as, — 


non dubitd quin omnés tui scripserint (Fam. v. 8), 7 do not doubt that all 
your friends have written. [Direct statement: scripsérunt. } 


302 Syntax: The Verb. [s 287 


quaré nOn ignOdrd quid accidat in iltimis terris, cum audierim in Italia 
querelas civium (Q. Fr. i. 1, 33), cherefore [ know well what happens 
at the ends of the earth, when I have heard in Italy the complaints of 
citizens. [In a direct statement, audivi.] 


2. A Perfect Historical: as, — 


mé autem hic laudat quod retulerim, non quod patefécerim (Att. xii. 21), 
me he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], mot 
because I brought it to light. [Direct statement: retulit.] 


3. An Iniperfect: as, — 


si forte ceciderint tum intellegitur quam fuerint inopés amicodrum (Lzl. 
15, 53), tf by chance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor 
they were in friends. [Direct question: quam inopés erant?] 

qui status rerum fuerit cum has litteras dedi scire poteris ex C, Tidio 
Strabone (Fam. xii. 6), what the condition of affairs was when I wrote 
this letter, you can learn from Strabo, (Direct question: qui erat?] 

quam civitati carus fuerit maerore funeris indicatum est (Lzlius 11), dow 
dear he was to the State has been shown by the grief at his funeral. 
[ Direct question: quam carus erat?] 

ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platdnis auditor (Or. 15), 
it may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of 
Plato. (Direct question: quam frequéns erat?] 


NOTE. — Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect Defin- 
ite or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as 
well. ‘This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive to express 
continued action after a primary tense. Thus, miror quid fécerit may mean 
(1) J wonder what he has done, (2) I wonder what he did (hist. perf.), or (3) Z 
wonder what he was doing. 


c. In clauses of Result, the Perfect subjunctive is very often (the 
Present rarely) used after secondary tenses: as, — 


Horténsius ardébat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo unquam flagrantius 
studium viderim (Bru. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speak- 
ing that I have never seena more burning ardor in any man. 

Siciliam Verrés per triennium ita véxavit ac perdidit, ut ea restitui in 
antiquum statum nullo modo possit (Ver. i. 12), for three years Verres 
so racked and ruined Sicily, that she can in no way be restored to her 
former state. [Here the Present is used in describing a state. of things 
actually existing. ] 

videor esse consecitus ut ndn possit Dolabella in Italiam pervenire 
(Fam. xii. 14), Z seem to have brought it about that Dolabella cannot 
come into Italy. 


REMARK.— This construction emphasizes the result; the regular construction 
subordinates it. 


Nore. — There is. a special fondness for the Periect Subjunctive to represent a 
Perfect Indicative. ‘lhus,— 





§ 287.] Sequence of Tenses. 303 


Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut illa plurima in sua patria et sacrificia - 
et fana contemneret; ita non timidus ad mortem ut in acié sit ob rem 
publicam interfectus (Finib. ii. 63), Zhorius was so little supersti- 
tious that he despised [coutemnebat] che many sacrifices and shrines in 
his country ; so little timorous about death that he was killed [inter- 
fectus est] i battle, in defence of the State. 

Zeno nullo modo is erat qui nervos virtutis inciderit (cf. § 279. d); sed 
contra qui omnia in una virtute poneret (Acad. i. 35), Zeno was by no 
means one to cut the sinews of virtue; but one, on the contrary, who 
made everything depend on virtue alone. [incidit ... ponébat.] 

erant enim nobis perirati, quasi quicquam dé nostra salute décrévissémus 
quod non idem illis-cénsuissemus aut quasi utilius rei publicae fuerit 
eos etiam ad bestiarum auxilium confugere quam vel emori vel cum spe 
vivere (Fam: ix. 6, 3), for they were very angry with us, just as if we 
had voted for anything in regard to our own preservation which we 
had not advised them also, or as if tt were more advantageous to the 
state for them to fly for help to brutes than either to die or to live in 
hope. [Without quasi, décréveramus and fuit would have been used. ] 


d. A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of tenses: 
as, — 

ex his quae tribuisset sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q. C. iii. 8), 
from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how incon- 
stant she is. (Direct: mutabilis est. ] 

ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animds ira habéret apparuit (Liv. xxxiii, 
37), here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [ Direct: 
habet. ] 


NOTE. — In English the original tense is more commonly kept. 


é. The Historical Present (§ 276. @) is sometimes felt as a primary, 
sometimes as a secondary tense.- Accordingly it is followed by either 
the primary or the secondary sequence, more commonly by the second- 
ary. Thus, — 3 

rogat ut ctiret quod dixisset (Quinc. 18), e asks him to attend to the thing 

he had spoken of. 

castella commiunit quo facilius prohibere posset (B. G. i. 8), he strengthens 

the forts that he might more easily keep them off. 

NoTE.— After the historical present, cum temporal with the subjunctive must 
follow the secondary sequence. 


f. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact 
(§ 308) are not affected by the sequence of tenses: as, — 
quia tale sit, ut vel si ign6rarent hominés, etc. (Finib. ii. 49), because it 
is such that even if men WERE ignorant, etc. 
g: The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to fact 
(§ 308) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence: as, — 


304. Syntax: The Verb.  [§§- 287, 288. 


si alii cOnsulés essent, ad té potissimum, Paulle, mitterem, ut eds mihi 
quam amicissimds redderés (Fam. xv. 13), ¢/ there were other consuls, 
I should send to you, Paulus, in preference to all, that you might make 
them as friendly to me as possible. 

si eds dicerés miserds quibus moriendum esset, neminem exciperes (Tusc. 
i. 9), if you called those wretched who must die, you would except no one. 


h. The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence, 
seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time (Symesis): as, — 


sed si rés coget, est quiddam tertium, quod neque SeliciG nec mihi displi- 
cebat; ut neque iacére rem paterémur, etc. (Fam. i. 5. a), dut if the 
case shall demand, there is a third (course] which neither Selicius nor 
myself disapproved, that we should not allow, etc. .[ Here Cicero is led 
by the time of displicébat.] ; 
sed tamen ut scirés haec tibi scribd (Fam. xiii. 47), dat yet that you may 
know, I write thus. {As if he had used the common epistolary imper- 
fect scribebam:(§ 282). ] 
cuius praecepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed Delphico deo 
tribuerétur (Leg. i. 58), sech is the force of this precept, that it was 
ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god. [The ii was an 
old one. ] 
Nore. — The rules for the sequence of tenses must not be alas as inflexi- 
ble. They were often disregarded by the Romans themselves, either from careless- 
ness or purposely for one reason or another. 


z. When a clause depends upon one already dependent, the sequence 
becomes secondary as soon as the time is thrown back into the past by 
any form that represents past time: as, — 

sed tamen qua re acciderit ut ex meis superidribus litteris id suspicarére 
nescio (Fam. ii. 16), dut yet how tt happened thai you suspected this 
from my previous letter, I don’t know. 

tantum profécisse videmur ut a Graecis né verborum quidem copia vince- 
remur (Nat. D.i.8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in 
JSulness of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks. 

But, — beaté vixisse videor quia cum Scipione vixerim (Lzlius 15, 7 
seem to have lived happily in that I have lived with Scipio (who had 
just died). 

NOTE. — For the application of this rule to Indirect Discourse, see § 336. B, note, 


V. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 
288. The tenses of the Infinitive denote present, past, 
or future time, relatively to the time of the verb on which 
they depend: as, — : 


nostros non esse inferidrés intelléxit (B. G. ii. 8), Ze ascertained that our 
men were not inferior, (Direct: sunt. ] 





§ 288.| Tenses of the Infinitive. 305 


quam Tuno fertur terris magis omnibus coluisse (Ain. i. 15), which Fund 
ts said to have cherished above all lands. (Direct: colébat.] 

sperant se maximum friictum esse captirds (Lael. 79), chey hope they shall 
receive the greatest advantage. [ Direct: capiémus.] 


a. After past tenses of verbs of necesstty, propriety, and possibility 
(as potui, débui, and oportuit) the present infinitive must be ren- 
dered by the Perfect infinitive in English: as, — 


scire potuit (Milo, 46), ke might have known. 
qui videbatur omnino mori non debuisse (Arch. 17), who seemed [one 
that] ough? not to have died at all. 


6. For the tenses of the infinitive in Indirect Discourse, see § 336. A. 


¢. Except in indirect discourse, the Present is the only tense of the 
infinitive in common use. It has no distinct reference to time. Thus, — 


est aduléscentis maiorés natu veréri (Of. i. 122), z¢ zs By duty] of a youth 
to reverence his elders. 


d. After verbs of wishing, necessity, and the like,! the Perfect Passive 
infinitive is often used instead of the Present: as, — 


nollem factum, / regref i¢ (1 could wish it not done). [The Latin form of 
apology. ] 

_ domestica cura te levatum [esse] volo (Q. F. iii. 9), 7 wish you relieved 
of household care. 

quod iam pridem factum esse oportuit (Cat.i. 5), which ought to have been 
done long ..go (cf. a, above). 


NOTE. — The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or 
without esse) than used to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the ‘ull form can 
hardly be distinguished from that construction; cf. matUratG opus est, chere is 
need of haste (§ 292. 0) and / pray thee have me excused, 

REMARK.—In early and late Latin, and in poetry, rarely in good acer, the 
Perfect Active infinitive is also used instead of. the Present, and even after other 
verbs than those of wishing and the like: as, — 


commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he ts cautious of doing. 

haud equidem premendo alium mé extulisse velim (Liv. xxii. 59), 7 would 
not by crushing another exalt myself. 

sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. Sat. i. 2), there are those who would not 
touch. 

statim vicisse débed (Rosc. Am. 73), J ought co win my case (I must be 
regarded as having won it). 

nollem dixisse (Ver. iv. 43), J would not say 


é. After verbs of feeling the Perfect infinitive is used, especially by 
the poets, to denote a completed action. 





1 Chiefly vol6, 0610, malo, oportet, decet, 


306 Syntax: The Verb. [§§ 288, 289. 


So also with satis est, satis habed, melius est, contentus sum, 
and in a few other cases where the distinction of time is important. 
Thus, — 


non paenitébat intercapédinem scribendi fécisse (Fam. xvi. 21), / wes not 
sorry ¢o have made a respile of writing. 

pudet mé non praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), J am ashamed not to have shown, _ 

sunt quos curriculd pulverem Olympicum collégisse iuvat (Hor. Od. i. 1. 3), 
there are those who delight, etc. 

quiésse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), é¢ wil? be better to have kept quiet. 

nil ego si peccem possum nescisse (Ov. Her. xvii. 47), if 7 should go wrong, 
Ll cannot have done it in ignorance (am not able not to have known). 


jf. The Future infinitive is often expressed by fore (or futirum 
esse) ut with the subjunctive; so necessarily in verbs which have no 
supine stem (cf. §§ 302. Rem., 332. €). Thus, — 


spéro fore ut contingat id nobis (Tus. i. 82), 7 hope that will be our happy lot. 


II.—NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS. 


The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the verb are employed 
as follows: — 
1. Attributive (§ 291 and a). 
2. Simple Predicate (§ 291. 4). 
Ge Scan and J 3, Periphrastic Perfect (passive) (§ 291. R.). 
<ermce 4. Predicate of Circumstance (§ 292). 
5. Descriptive(Indirect Discourse) ($ 292.¢). 
1. Periphrastic with esse (§ 293. a). 
4, Future {2 Periphrastic with fui (= Pluperfect Sub- 
junctive) (§ 293. c). 
1. As Descriptive Adjective (§ 294. a}. 
.¢. Gerundive 2. Periphrastic with esse (§ 294. 4). 
3. Of Purpose with certain verbs (§ 294. @). 
1. Genitive as Objective Genitive (§ 298}. 
2. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs (§ 299). 
3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions (§ 300). 


I. PARTICIPLES: + 





2. GERUND or 


GERUNDIVE: 
4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions 
(§ 301). 
3, SUPINE: { 1. Former Supine (in -um), with Verbs of Motion (§ 302). 
2, Latter Supine (in -0), chiefly with Adjectives (§ 303.) 


1. — PARTICIPLES. 


289. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in 
the form of an Adjective; but has a partial distinction of 
tense, and may govern a case. 


§§ 289,290.] Dzstinctions of Tense in Participles, 307." 


NOTE. — Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective with some 
of the functions of averb, As an adjective, it limits substantives, and agrees with 
them in gender, number, and case ($ 186). Asa verb, it has distinctions of time 
(§ 290), and often takes an object. 


1. Distinctions of Tense. 


290. Participles denote time as present, past, or future 
with respect to the time of the verb in their clause. 


Thus the Present Participle represents the action as zz progress at 
the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed, 
and the Future as s¢z// to take place. 

a. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of the 
Present Indicative. Thus it may denote: — 
1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past 

(§ 276. a): as, -- 

quaerenti mihi iamdit certa rés nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. iv. SS 

though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind, 

2. Attempted action (§ 276. 4): as, — 

C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. 11), he resisted 

Flaminius when attempting to divide the Picene territory. 

3. Futurity or Purpose (§ 276. c): as, — 

Eurypylum scitantem oracula mittimus (AEn. ii. 114), we send Eurypylus 
to consult the oracle. 

6. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly in 
the sense of a Present. 

Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, fisus, 
ausus, seciitus, and occasionally others, especially in later writers. 
Thus, — 

cohortatus milités docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he showed. 

iratus dixisti (Mur. 62), you spoke in a passion. 

oblitus auspicia (Phil. i. 31), forgetting the auspices. 

insidias veritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing ambuscade. 

imperio potitus (Liv. xxi. 2), holding the command. 


ad pignam congress! (id. iv. 10), meeting in fight. 
rem incrédibilem rati (Sall. Cat. 48), thinking the thing incredible. 


¢. The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive. The place of 
such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum or cum, rarely 
by the participle in -dus (cf. p. 314, foot-note): as, — 

nullis évidentibus causis obiére dum calceantur matitind duo Caesarés 


(Plin. N. H. vii. 181), from no obvious cause two Casars died while 
having their shoes put on in the morning. 


308 Syntax: The Verb. [§§ 290, 291. 


méque ista delectant cum Latiné dicuntur (Academ. i.18), those things 
please me when they are spoken in Latin. 
crucibus adfixi aut flammandi (Tac. Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set on fire 
(in flames). 
NoTE.— The constructions with @um and cum are often used when a partici- 
ple might be employed: as,— 
dic, hospes, Spartae, nés té hic vidisse iacentés, dum sanctis patriae legibus 
obsequimur, ée// it, stranger, at Sparta, that you saw us lying here 
obedient to our country’s sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a 
translation of the Greek present participle re:0duevor. } 
dum [Ulixés] sibi, dum sociis reditum parat (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 21), Ulysses, 
while securing the return of himself and his companions. (In Greek: 
dpvdmevos. | 
d. The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice. The 
deficiency is supplied — 
1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active 
meaning: as, — 


nam singulas [navés] nostri cOnsectati expugnaverunt (B. G. iii. 15), for 
our men having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding. 


2. Inother verbs, either by the ablative absolute with a change of voice 
(§ 255. @, note) or by a clause (especially with cum or dum): as, — 
itaque convocatis centuridnibus milités certiores facit (B. G. iil. 5), and 
so, having called the centurions together, he informs the soldiers (the 
centurions having been called together). 
cum.vénisset animadvertit collem (id. vii. 4M), having come when he had 
come), he noticed a hill. 


NoTE.— The perfect participle of several deponent verbs.may be either.active 
or passive in meaning (§ 135. 4). 


2. Adjective Use. 


291. The Present and Perfect participles are used 
sometimes as attributive, nearly like adjectives: as, — 


cum antiquissimam sententiam tum comprobatam (Div.i.11),@ view ai 
once most ancient and well approved. 

signa nunquam fere 6mentientia (id.15), sigus hardly ever deceitful. 

auspiciis ituntur coactis (id. 27), chey use forced auspices. 


a. Participles often become Complete adjectives, and may be com- 
pared or used as nouns. Thus, — 


quo mulieri esset res cautior (Czecina 11), chat the matter might be more. 
secure for the woman. 

in illis artibus praestantissimus (De Orat. i. 217), pre-eminent in those 
arts. 


 §§ 291, 292.) Predicate Use of Participles. 309 


sibi indulgentés et corpori déservientés (Leg. i. 39), the self-indulgent, 
and slaves to the body (indulging themselves and serving the body). 

recte facta paria esse debent (Paradox. 22), right deeds (things rightly 
done) ought to be like in value (see § 207. ¢). 

male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 65), 2/7 got, i// spent (things ill- 
acquired, etc. ). 

consuetud6 valentis (De Or. ii. 186), the habit of a man in health. 


b. Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As such they 
may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb (see §§ 186. 
6, 176. a): as, — 
Gallia est divisa (B.G. i. 1), Gaul is divided. 
locus qui nunc saeptus est (Liv. i. 8), che place which is now enclosed. 
vidétis ut senectiis sit operdsa et semper agéns aliquid et moliéns (C. M. 26), 
you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at something. 
nemo adhic convenire voluit cui fuerim occupatus (Cato Major 32), 
nobody hitherto has [ever] wished to converse with me, to whom I have 
- been “ engaged.” 
’ REMARK. — From this predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive, 
_ —the participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing 
the idea of past time: as interfectus est, e was (or has been) 4i//ed, lit., he ts 
having-been-killed (i.e. already slain). : 
- In the best writers (as Cicero), the perfect participle, when used with fui, etc., 
_ retains its proper force; but in later writers the two sets of tenses (as amatus 
; gum or fui) are often used indiscriminately to form the tenses of the perfect sys- 
tem in the passive: as, — 
; [leges] cum quae latae sunt tum vero quae prémulgatae fuérunt (Sest. 
55), the laws, both those which were proposed, and those which were pub- 
4 lished. [The proposal of the laws was a single act: hence latae sunt 
} is a compound perfect. The publishing, or posting, was a continued 
state, which is indicated by the participle promulgatae, and fuérunt 
is the perfect of the copula. ] 
arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. i. 74), 
: the arms which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the 
ground, [Cf. occupati sunt et fuérunt (Off. i. 57), ave and have 
been engaged. The difference between this and arma quae, etc., is, 
that occupatus in this sense is used only as an adjective. | 


‘a : 3. Predicate Use. 

é 292. The Present and Perfect participles are often used 
_ asa predicate, where in English a phrase or clause would - 
__ be usual. 

___In this use the participles express ¢ime, cause, occasion, 
. condition, concession, characteristic (or description), manner, 
means, attendant circumstances. Thus, — 





310 Syntax: The Verb. [§ 292. 


volventés hostilia cadavera amicum reperiebant (Sall. Cat. 61), while roll- 
_ ing over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend, [Time.] 
paululum commoratus, signa canere iubet (Sall. Cat. 59, 1), after delaying 
a little while, he orders to give the signal. [Time.] 
longius prosequi veritus, ad Ciceronem pervenit (B. G. v. 52), decause he 
feared to follow further, he came to Cicero. (Cause. ] 
quo sciret laxas dare itissus habenas (/En. i. 63), who might know how to 
give them loose rein when bidden. (Occasion. ] 
damnatum poenam sequi oportebat (B. G. i. 4), if condemned, pee 
ment must overtake him. (Condition. ] 
salutem inspérantibus reddidisti (Marc. 21), you have restored a safety 
which we did not hope. [Concession. ] 
Dardanius caput ecce puer detectus (En. x. 133), the Trojan boy with 
his head uncovered, [ Description. ] 
nec trepides in usum poscentis aevi pauca (Hor. Od. ii. 11. 5), de not 
anxtous for the needs of age that demands little. (Characteristic. ] 
incitati fuga montes altissimds petebant (B. C. iii. 93), in headlong Jight 
they made for the highest mountains. [Manner.] 
milites sublevati alii ab aliis magnam partem itineris cOnficerent (B.C. i. 
68), the soldiers helped up by each other, etc. [Means.] 
hoc laudans, Pompeius idem itravit (B. C. iii. 87), approving this, Pom- 
pey took the same oath. [Attendant circumstance. ] 
aut sedéns aut ambulans disputabam (Tuscul. i. 7), 7 conducted the dis- 
cussion either sttting or walking. (Circumstance. | 
REMARK.—These uses are especially frequent in the ablative absolute (§ 255. @). 
A co-ordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle: as, — 
instrictOs ordines in locum aequum deducit (Sall. Cat. 59), Ze draws up 
the lines, and leads them to level ground. 
ut hos transductos necaret (B. G. v. 5), chat he might carry them over and 
put them to death. 
NOTE 1.—A participle with a negative often expresses the same idea which in 
English is given by without and a verbal noun: as,— 
miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D.iii.14), 2¢ 7s wretched to vex 
oneself without effecting anything. 
NOTE 2,— Acceptum and expénsum as predicates with ferre and 
referre are book-keeping terms: as, — 
quas pecunias ferébat eis expénsas (Verr. ii. 170), what sums he charged 
to them. 


a. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that the par- 
ticiple and not the noun contains the main idea:1! as, — 


ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref. )» before the city was built 
or building. 





1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek 
Grammar, § 280); and the English, “’Twas at the royal feast for Persia won” 
(Dryden), ze. for the conquest of Persia, 


§ 292.] Predicate Use of Participles. 311 


illi libertatem civium ROmandrum imminiitam non tulérunt; vds vitam 
éreptam neglegetis (Manil.11), they did not endure the infringement 
of the citizens’ liberty ; will you disregard the destruction of their life ? 

post homineés natos (Brutus, 224), sénce the creation of man. 

iam a condita urbe (Phil. iii. 9), even from the founding of the city. 


b. The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter 
as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, weed (cf. 
§ 243. ¢): as,— 

opus facto est viaticd (Plaut. Trin. 887), there is need of laying in 

provision. 

matirato opus est (Liv. viii. 13), chere ts need of haste. 

NOTE.— The omission of the noun in agreement gives rise to complex con- 
structions: as,— 

quid opus factost, what must be done? [A mixture of quid opus est fieri? 

and quo facto opus est ?] 


¢. The perfect participle with habeG (rarely with other verbs) has 
almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the continued 
effect of the action of the verb:? as, — 


fidem quam habent spectatam iam et dit cégnitam (Div. C. 11), my 
fidelity, which they have proved and long known. 

cohortés in acié Ixxx. constitiitas habébat (B. C. iii. 89), he had eighty 
cohorts stationed in line of battle. 

nefarios duces captos iam et comprehénsods tenétis (Catil. iii. 16), you 
have captured and hold in custody the infamous leaders, etc. 


d. A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with 
the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that 
verb more forcibly: as, — tea, 


praefectds suds multi missés fécérunt (Ver. iii. 134), many discharged . 
their officers (made dismissed), 

hic transactum reddet omne (Plaut. Capt. 345), Ze wil? get it all done 
(restore it finished). 

ademptum tibi iam fax6 omnem metum (Ter. Haut. 341), 7 will relieve 
you of all fear (make it taken away). 

illam tibi incénsam dabo (Ter. Ph. 974), / will make her angry with you. 

NOTE. — Similarly Vol6 (with its compounds) and cupi6, with a perfect 

participle without esse (cf. § 288 d. note ): as,— 

mé excisatum volo (Ver. ii. 1. 103), 7 wish to be excused (I want myself 
excused, cf. / pray thee have me excused). 

qui te conventum cupit (Plaut. Curc. 304), who wants to meet you (wants 
you met). 





1 The perfect with Aave, in modern languages of Latin stock, has grown out 
of this use of habed, 


arbi” 


312 Syntax: The Verb. [§§ 292, 293 


é. After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present participle 
in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive of 
indirect discourse (§ 336), but expresses the action more vividly: as, — 


ut eum ném6 unquam in equo sedentem viderit (Verr. v. 27), so that no 
one ever saw him sitting on a horse. [Cf. Tusc. iii. 31.] 


NOTE. — The same construction is used after faci6, indtic6, and the like, 
with the name of an author as subject: as, — 


Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N. D. i. 31), Xenophon represents 
Socrates disputing. 


4, Future Participle. 


293. The Future Participle (except futirus and ventirus) 
is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by 
later writers. 


a. The future participle is chiefly used with esse (which is often 
omitted) in the active periphrastic conjugation (see § 129): as, — 


morere, Djagora, ndn enim in caelum adscénsirus es (Tus. i. 111), diz, 
for you are not likely to rise to heaven. 

sperat adolescens diu sé victirum (Cat. Maj. 68), che young man hopes to 
live long (that he shall live long). 

neque petitiirus unquam cOnsulatum videretur (Off. iii. 79), awd did not 
seem likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship. 


6. By later writers and the poets the future participle is also used in 
simple agreement with a substantive to express : — 
1. Likelihood or certainty: as, — 


ausus est rem plus famae habitiiram (Liv. ii. 10), Ze dared a thing which 
would have more repute. 


2. Purpose, intention, or readiness: as, — 


cum leo regem invasirus incurreret (Q. C. viii. 1), when a lion rushed on 
to attack the king. 

rediit belli casum dé integro tentatirus (Liv. xvii. 62), Ze returned do try 
the chances of war anew. 

dispersos per agros milités equitibus invdsiiris (id. xxxi. 36), wh7le che 
horse were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields. [A 
rare use of the Ablative Absolute. ] 

si peritiirus abis (Ain. ii. 675), ¢f you are going away to perish. 

3. Apodosis: as, — | 

dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, datiirus amplius si potuisset (Plin. 
Ep. iii. 21), Ze gave me as much as he could, ready to give me more if 
he had been able. 





§§ 293, 294.] Gerundive (Future Passive Participle). 313 


c. With past tenses of esse, the future participle is often ne nene: 33 
to the pluperfect subjunctive (see § 308. 2). 


5. Gerundive (Future Passive Participle). 
NOTE. — The participle in -dus, commonly called the Gerundive, has two dis. 
tinct uses : — 
(1) Its predicate and attribute use as participle or adjective (§ 294). 
(2) Its use with the meaning of the gerund (§ 296). This may be called its 
gerundive use. . 


294. The gerundive when used as a Participle or an 
Adjective is always passive, denoting necessity or propriety. 

In this use of the gerundive the following points are to 
be observed (a-d). 


a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect 
participles, in simple agreement with a noun: as, — 


fortem et cOnservandum virum (Mil. 104), @ rave man, and worthy to be 
preserved. 


b. The most frequent use of this form is with esse in the second 
(passive) periphrastic conjugation (see § 129): as, —" 

non agitanda rés erit (Verr. v. 179), will not the thing have to be 

agitated ? , 

c. The neuter of the gerundive? is occasionally used impersonally 
with an object. The object is in the case regularly governed by the 
verb. Thus, — 

agitandumst vigilias (Pl. Tr. 869), [ have got to stand guard. 

via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. Maj. 6), che way we have to enter. 

NOTE.— ‘This use is regular with verbs which take their object in the dative or 
ablative: as, — 

légibus parendum est, he Jaws must be obeyed. 

fitendum exercitationibus modicis (Cat. Maj. 36), we must use moderate 

exercise. 


d. After verbs signifying zo give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, 
undertake, demand,? a gerundive in agreement with the object is used 
to express purpose: as, — 


1 Sometimes called Nominative of the Gerund. Compare Greek verbal in -r¢os 
(Goodwin's Grammar, § 281). 

2 Such verbs are accipi6, adn6td, attribud, condiicé, ciir6, dénibtd, 
dé6poscé, db, divid6, dbnG, &dicé, 6doceG, ferd, habed, locé, mandG, 
obici6, permittd, petd, pond, praebed, prdpiné, relinqud, Foes, sus 
 « eipié, trads, voved. 





314 Syntax: The Verb. [$$ 294-96. 


redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 47), the 
contractor who had undertaken to make that column. [The regular 
construction with this class of verbs. ] 

aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Ver.ii.1.150),4e had the temple of Castor 
to take care of. 

naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat (id. v. 146), Ze took care 
that the ships and cargoes should be kept. 


Il.—GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 


295. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in 
the form of a verbal noun. As a zoun the gerund is itself 
governed by other words; as a verb it may take an DRiee 
in the proper case. Bic 


ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa diitidicandi (De Or. ii. 157), the art 
of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and false. 


REMARK.— The nominative of the gerund is supplied by the infinitive. Thus 
in the example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used 
in the nominative, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and diit- 
dicare. ; 


296. When the Gerund would have an object in the 
accusative, the Gerundive? is generally used instead. The 
gerundive agrees with its noun, and takes the case which 
the gerund would have had: as, — 


paratiorés ad omnia pericula subeunda (B.G. i. 5), readier to undergo all 
dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself gov- 
erned by ad. The construction with the gerund would be, ad subeun- 
dum pericula; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing 
the accusative pericula. ] 

exercendae memoriae gratia (C. M. 38), jor the sake of training the 
memory. (Here the gerund construction would be memoriam exer- 
cendi gratia. ] 

plérisque in rébus gerendis tarditas odidsa est (Phil. vi. a; in the con- 
ducting of most business, sloth 1s odious. 





1 The gerundive construction is probably the original one. ‘The participle in 
-dus seems to havé had a present passive force (as in ante condendam urbem 
(§ 292. a), rotundus, volvenda diés (Virg.), fammandi (Tac.), § 290. c) from 
which the idea of necessity was developed through that of futurity, as in the develop- 
ment of the subjunctive (see p. 274). COdnsilium urbis délendae would have 
meant a plan of a city being destroyed [in process of destruction], then about to be de- 


stroyed, then fo de destroyed, then a plan of destroying the city, the two words becom- 


ing fused together as in ab urbe condita. 





ane ars 


\ 
-| 


§§ 296-98. | -Gerund and Gerundne. 315 


NoTE.— In this use the gerund and the gerundivere translated in the same 
way, but have really a different construction. The Geruhdive is a fassive partici- 
ple, and agrees with its noun, though in translation we thange the voice, just as 
we may translate vigiliae agitandae sunt (gward \Wwust be kept) by 1 must 
stand guard. ‘The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundiv used impersonally, but 
retaining the verbal idea sufficiently to govern an obje¢, as in agitandumst 
vigilias (§ 294. c). It may therefore be considered as ¢ noun (cf. opus est 
maétirats, § 292. 4) with a verbal force (cf. hanc tacti6)p. 235, foot-note). See 
p. 314, foot-note. 


The following examples illustrate the parallel constructions of gerund 
and gerundive : — 


GEN. consilium { amet capipns \ a design of cedy city. 


urbis capiendae 


f agros colendo ) 
Dat. dat operam \Gearin oole nite \ he attends to tillingthe fields. 


Ace. veniunt ad | Pore petendam S92 24 sn schveace 
{ scribendo epistulas ) 


BL. terit tempus 
= Seen PUS | scribendis epistulis 


\ he spends time ti writing letters. 


REMARK.—In the gerundive construction the verbs ttor, 'ruor, etc., are 
treated like transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they do\in early Latin 


(§ 249. 4): as,— \ 
expetuntur divitiae ad perfruendas voluptates (Of. i. 25), richs are sought 
for the enjoyment of pleasures (for enjoying pleasures). 


297. The Gerund and the Gerundive are usel, in the 


“oblique cases, in many of the constructions of baa 


ak Genitive. 

298. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundve is 
used after nouns or adjectives either as subjective or 
objective genitive: as, — 







neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. iv 14), 
time being given neither for forming pant nor for taking wrms. 
[Objective. ] 

né cOnservandae quidem patriae causa (Of. i. 159), zo¢ even for the sake 
of saving the country. (Originally subjective genitive. ] 

vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. Maj. 72), 24 zs the dest end of living. [Sib- 
jective. ] 

* non tam commiitandarum rerum quam évertendarum cupidos (Off. i ii. 

desirous not so much of changing as of destroying the state. [Objectiv 

NOTE.— In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinari 


have the genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive. Thus tempus est abire, it 
time to depart, 


316 Syntax: The Verb. [§§ 298, 299. 


REMARK.— The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially in 
early and late Latin) asa predicate — When so used it often mer TEN 


purpose: as,— 

quae rés vertenda: reipublicae solent esse (Verr. ii. 132), things ies 
generally tend b the overthrow of the commonwealth. 

si arborum trunci déiciendi operis essent missae (B. G. iv. 17), i# case 
trunks of trees should be sent down [with the object] of overthrowing 
the work, [Ped. gen. like quas sui commodi fécerat (v. 8).] 

Aegyptum proficicitur cégndscendae antiquitatis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), Ae 
sets out for Leypt to study old times. 

née id assentand magis quam quo habeam gratum facere existumés (Ter. 
Ad. 270), pr fear you should think that I do it more for the sake of 
flattery that because, etc. 


a. The genitve of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or 
pronoun (especally sui) in the objective genitive instead of ty a 
direct object: is, — 

ius videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec. 372), eager to see her (eager for a seeing 

of her). 

réiciendi trum itidicum potestas(Ver. ii. 77), the ower of hepsi three 


jurors(of the rejecting of three jurors). 
sui colligmdi facultas (B. G. iii. 6), the opportunity to recover themselves. 


NoTeE. —Ihis construction undoubtedly arose from the fact that the gerund, 
with the now (or adjective) on which it depends, was conceived as a compound 
noun (or adective) governing an objective genitive (cf. § 217. 4). Thus sui col- 
ligendi fecult&s would be literally, a chance of a recovering of theirs. This 
constructim is easily distinguished from that of the gerundive by the fact that the 
gerund des not agree with the substantive in gender and number. 

6. Ir genitive constructions the Gerund and Gerundive are about 


equallycommon. 
c. The genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is used with caus& or 


gratii to denote purpose (see § 318). 


N(TE.— This is merely a special use under the main head of § 298. 


2. Dative. 


299. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used 
after adjectives! which take the dative and rarely after 
nouns (§ 234. a): as, — 





1 The dative of the gerund and gerundive occurs most commonly after the — 


adjectives accommodatus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, idGneus, par, 
Gtilis, iniitilis. But the accusative with ad is common with most of these 


(cf. § 234. 4). 


~ 


$§ 299, 300.] Gerund and Gerundive. 317 


genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii, 10), @ soré of 
armor suited to the defence of the body. 

té sociam studed scribendis versibus esse (Lucr. i. 25), 7 desire that 
thou (Venus) be my partner in writing verses. 

reliqua tempora démetendis frictibus et percipiendis accommodata 
sunt (Cat. Maj. 70), che other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in 
the harvest. ; 

perferendis militum mandatis iddnéus (Tac. Ann. 1, 23), suttable for 
carrying out the instructions of the soldiers. 


a. The dative is used in a few expressions after verbs?; as, — 


diem praestitit operi faciend6 (Ver. ii.1.148), Ae appointed a day for doing 
the work. 

praeesse agro colendd (Rose. Am. 50, ¢0 take charge of cultivating the 
land. 

esse solvend6, Zo be able to pay (to be for paying). 


NOTE. — This construction is a remnant of a more general use of the dative of 
the gerund and gerundive, 

b. The dative is also used in certain legal phrases after nouns mean- 
ing officers, offices, elections, etc., to indicate the function or scope of 
the office, etc.: as, — 


comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 33), elections for nominating consuls, 

triumvir coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), @ ¢riumvir for planting colonies. 

triumviri reipublicae constituendae (title of the Triumvirate), ¢riumvirs (a 
commission of three) for settling the government. 


3. Accusative. 


300. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is 
used after the prepositions ad, inter, circa, ob (and rarely 
in and ante); most frequently after ad, denoting Purpose 
(cf. § 318. 4): as, — 


mé vocas ad scribendum (Or. 34), you summon me to write. 
vivis non ad déponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 4), 
you live, not to put off, but Lo confirm your daring. 
nactus aditus ad ea cOnanda (B. C. i. 31), Aaving found means to under- 
take these things. - ® 
_fnter agendum (Ecl. ix. 24), while driving. 


NOTE, — The Accusative of the gerund with a preposition never takes a direct 
object, the Ablative of the gerund very rarely. The Gerundive is used instead 


(} 296). 





1 Such are praeesse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere. 


318 Syntax: The Verb. (88 301, 302 


4. Ablative. 


301. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is 
used (1) to express Manner,! Means, Cause, etc.; and 
(2) after Comparatives; and (3) after the prepositions ab, 
dé, 6x, in, and (rarely) pré and cum: as, — 


1) multe pollicendé persuadet (Jug. 46), he persuades by large promises. 
Latiné loquendo cuivis par (Bru. 128), egual to any man in speaking 
Latin. 
nillis virtitis praeceptis tradendis (Off. i 5), without delivering any 
precepts of virtue (by delivering no precepts). 
his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 21), dy reading these very things. 
obscuram atque humilem conciendé ad sé multitiidinem (Liv. i. 8), calling 
to them a mean and obscure multitude. 
(2) niillum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. i. 47), 720 
duty is more important than repaying favors. 
(3) in ré gerenda versari (Cat. M. 17), to be employed in conducting affairs. 
NOTE.—The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used 
with verbs and adjectives: as, — 
Appius non abstitit continuand6 magistratum (Liv. ix. 34), Appius did not 
desist from continuing his magistracy. 
REMARK.— The gerund is often found co-ordinated with nominal constructions, 
and sometimes even in apposition with a noun; as, — 
(1) in ford, in ctria, in amicorum periculis pulsandis (Phil. vii. 7), iz the 
JSorum, in the senate-house, in defending my friends in jeopardy. 
(2) ad rés diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Liv. xxi. 3), for the 
most widely different things, obeying and commanding. 


ill.— SUPINE. 


NOTE. — The supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension (§ 71. a), having 
no distinction of tense or person, and limited to two uses. (1) The form in -um 
is the accusative of the ezd of motion (§ 258.6,Rem.). (2) The form in -€ is usually 
dative of Zurpose (§ 233), though probably the ablative has been confused with it. 


302. The Former Supine (in -um) is used after verbs 
of motion to express purpose. It may take an object in 
the proper case. Thus, — 

FA 





1 In this use the ablative of the gerund is, in later writers nearly, and in medizval 
writers entirely, equivalent to a present participle: as, cum fina di6érum FLENDG 
sédisset, quidam miles generdsts iixta eam EQUITANDO Vénit (Gesta 
Romanorum, 66 [58]), as ove day she sat weeping, a certain knight came riding 
dy. (Compare $ 301, fifth example.) From the gerund used as ablative of manner 
come the Italian and Spanish forms of the present participle (as mandando, espe- 
rando), the true participial form becoming an adjective in those languages. 


$§ 302,303.) Supine. 319 


quid est, imusne séssum? etsi monitum vénimus té, non flagitatum (De 
O. iii. 17), Low now, shall we be seated? though we have come to remind, 
not to entreat you ? ‘ 
niptum dare (collocare), 40 give im marriage. 
venerunt questum iniurias (Liv. iii. 25), chey came to complain of wrongs. 
REMARK.— The supine in -um is especially common with e6; and with the 
passive infinitive iri forms the future infinitive passive. Thus,— 


fuére civés qui rempublicam perditum irent (Sall. Cat. 36), there were 
citizens who went about to ruin the republic (cf. § 258. 6, Rem.) 

non Grais servitum matribus ibd (Ain. ii. 786), J shall not go to be a slave 
to the Grecian dames. 

si scisset se trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 22), 7/4e (Pompey) Zad known that 
he was going to be murdered. [For the more usual form of the future 
infinitive, see § 147. ¢.] 


303. The Latter Supine (in -a)? is used only with a 
few adjectives, with the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, and 
rarely with verbs, to denote an action zz reference to which 
the quality is asserted : as, — 


O rem nén modo visii foedam, sed etiam audit (Phil. ii. 63), @ thing not 

only shocking to see, but even to hear of. 

quaerunt quid optimum factii sit (Ver. ii. 1. 68), chey ask what is best to do. 

humanum factii aut inceptii (Ter. Andr. 236), a human thing to do or 

undertake. 

si hdc fas est dictti (Tusc. v. 38), i this ts lawfut to say. 

vidéetis nefas esse dictii miseram fuisse talem senectutem (Cato. M. 13), 

you see it is a sin to say that such an old age was wretched. 

pudet dictii (Agric. 32), ¢¢ zs shame to tell. 

NoTE,— The . latter supine is thus in appearance an ablative of specification 
(§ 253), but see § 302, head-note, 

REMARK.—~ The supine in -& is found especially with such adjectives as indi- 
cate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, 
and the like. But with facilis, difficilis, iucundus, ad with the gerund is 
more common, Thus,— 

nec visi facilis nec dictii adfabilis ulli (Ain. iii. 621), Ze ts not pleasant 

for any man to look at or address. 

difficilis ad distinguendum similitudo (De O. ii. 212), @ likeness di tfficult to 

distinguish. 
With all these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the same sense; as, — 


faciles aurem praebere (Prop.), éxdulgent to lend an ear. 





1 The only latter supines in common use are auditt, dictt, facti, inventt, 
memorath, nati, visi. In classic use this supine is found, in all, in twenty. 
four verbs, It is never followed by an object-case, 


320 Syntax: Conditional Sentences. 


CuaptrerR 1V.— Conditional Sentences. 


NOTE,— The Conditional Sentence differs from other compound sentences in 
this, that the form of the main clause (APODOSIS) is determined in some degree \. 


by the nature of the subordinate clause (PROTASIS), upon*the truth of which the 
whole statement depends, Like all compound sentences, however, the Conditional 
Sentence has arisen from putting together two independent statements, which in 
time became so closely united as to make one modified statement. Thus— SJeas 
the word: my servant shall be healed is an earlier form of expression than Jf ¢hou 
speak the word, etc. 

The Conditional Particles were originally independent pronouns: thus 8], z/, is 
a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sic, so (sI-ce like hi-ce, see foot- 
notes at pp. 65, 67), and has the primitive meaning of zz that way, or in some way. 

In its origin the Condition was of two kinds, Either it was assumed and stated 
as a fact, or it was expressed as a mild command, From the first have come all 
the uses of the Indicative in protasis; from the latter all the uses of the Subjunctive 
in protasis, The Apodosis has either (1) the Indicative, expressing the conclusion 
as a fact; and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, expressing it originally as 
future —and hence more or less doubt/ul— or (2) the Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub- 
junctive expressing it as futérum in praeterito,| and so unfulfilled in the present or 
past. Thus ridés, maidre cachinn6 concutitur, you laugh, he shakes with 
more boisterous laughter, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and 
apodosis; Si ridés originally means merely you laugh in some way or other, and 
so, later, IF you daugh. So rogés Arist6nem, neget, ask Aristo, he would say no, 
is the original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis; si rogés would 
mean ask in some way or other, In si roga&res, neg&ret, the Imperfect rogarés 
transfers the command of rogé6s to past time,? with the meaning suppose you had 
asked, and si would have the same meaning as before; while neg&ret transfers the 
future idea of neget to past time, and means 4e was going to deny. Now the stating 
of this supposition at all gives rise to the implication that it is w#true in point of fact, 


— because, if it were true, there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a sup- . 


position; for it would then be a simple fact, and as such would be put in the indic- 
ative Such a condition or conclusion — originally past, meaning suppose you had 
asked [yesterday], 4e was going to deny —came to express an unfulfilled condition in 
the present; suppose (or if) you were now asking, he would (now] deny just as in Eng- 
lish ought, which originally meant owed,4 has come to express a present obligation. 





1 The futirum in praeterité is a tense future relatively to a time absolutely 
past. It denotes a future act transferred to the point of view of past time, and hence 
is naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive: thus dixisset, Ze would 
have said=dicttrus fuit, ke was about to say [but did not]. As that which 
looks towards the future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present 
time, such a tense (the imperfect subjunctive) came naturally to be used to express 
a present condition purely ideal, that is to say, contrary to fact. 

2 Compare potius diceret, he should rather have said (§ 266. e). 

8 There are, however, some cases in which this implication does noi arise: as, 
deciéns centéna dedisses, nil erat in loculis (Hor. Sat. i. 3. 15), ¢f you'd 
given him a million, there was nothing in his coffers, 


4“ There was a certain lender which ought him five hundred pieces,” — Zyn- 


dale's N. T. 


a 
Ty 


"= radia aa a 
wi . 


§ 304.] Protasis and Apodosis.  - $at 


Conditional Sentences may be classified as ollows : — 


I. ype aco OR Past CON?DITIONS, nothing implied as to fulfilment 
306). 
. Ja. More vivid (§ 307). 
2, FUTURE CONDITIONS: | 5 Lest vied Uf 507). 
3. CONDITIONS CONTRARY | a, Present ($ 308). 
TO FACT: b. Past ({ 308). 
a. Indefinite Subject (§ 309. a). 
4. Repeated Action (§ 309. 2. ¢). 
1. in clause of Fact, Wish,,. 
Command (310. 3, ¢). 
2. inParticipialExpression 


: ' (§ 310. 2). 
» ea ten 5 tng nce aha 1. Potential Subjunctive 


eS (§ 311. a). 
. Protasis Omitted 2. Subjunctive of Modesty 


(§ 311. 4), 


4. GENERAL CONDITIONS: { 


a, Protasis Disguised 


S 


1. Protasis and Apodosis. 


304. A complete conditional sentence consists of two 
clauses, the Protasis and the Apodosis. 

The clause containing the condition is called the Prota- 
sis; the clause containing the conclustow is called the 
APpoposIs: as, — 

si qui exire volunt [PROTASIS], cOnivére possum [APODOSIS] (Cat. ii. 27), 

if any wish to depart, I can keep uty eyes shut. 


si est in exsilio [PROTASIS], quid amplius postulatis [apoposis] (Lig.13), 
if he is in exile, what more do you ask? 


NOTE, — It should be carefully noted that the Protasis is the dependent clause. 


a The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particle 
si (IF) or one of its compounds.» 

NoTE. — These compounds are sin, nist, etiamst, etsl, tametst, tamenetsi. 
(see Conditional and Concessive Particles, § 155. ¢,2). An Indefinite Relative; or 
any relative or concessive word, may also serve to introduce a’ conditional clause: 
(see § 316). 

b. The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word or 
phrase : as, sic, ita, tum, e4 condiciéne, etc.» Thus, — 

ita enim senectiis honesta est, si sé ipsa défendit (Cat. Maj. 38), on chis 

condition ts old age honorable, if it defends itself. 


si quidem mé amaret, tum istiic prodésset (Ter. Eun: 446), if he loved me, 
then this would be profitable, 


NotTe!==rl this -use'sfo and 6a ‘condiciéne ate tater 


322 Syntax: Conditional Sentences. [§§ 304, 305. 


¢. The Apodosis is the prindpal clause of the conditional sentence, 
but may at the same time be subordinate to some other clause, and so 
be in the form of a Participle, ai\ Infinitive, or a Phrase: as, — 
sepultura quoque prohibitiri, ni ix humari iussisset (Q. C. viii. 2), zaéend- 
ing also to deprive him of burial, unless the king had ordered him to be 
interred. ; 


quod si praeterea ném6 sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima legione itirum 


[esse] (B. G. i. 40), but tf no one else would follow, he would go with the 
tenth legion alone. 


Si quos adversum proelium commoveret, hés reperire posse (id.), ¢f che loss 
of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc. 


NoTE. — When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any dependent - 
construction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the first 
two of the above examples, see § 337). 


d. Conditions are either (1) Particular or (2) General. 

1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts 
occurring at some definite time. 

2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which 
may occur (or may have occurred) at any time. 


2. Classification. 


305. The principal or typical Forms of conditional 
sentences may be exhibited as follows: — 

a. SIMPLE CONDITIONS, with nothing implied as to fulfilment. 

1. Present, xothing implied. Present Indicative in both clauses. 

si adest,! bene est, 7/ ke ts [now] here, it is well. 

2. Past, nothing implied. Some past tense of the Indicative in both 
clauses. 

si ailerat, bene erat, if he was [then] here, tt was well. 

si adfuit, bene fuit, 7/4e has been here, it has been well. 

é. FuruRE ConpIrTIOns (necessarily as yet unfulfilled). 

1. More vivid. 

(a) Future Indicative in both clauses. 

si aderit, bene erit, fe zs (shall be) here, it will be well. 

(8) Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in apodo- 
sis (condition thought of as completed before conclusion begins). 





i Cf. the Greek forms: — a. I. ei rpdocet TodTo, Karas ExeL. 
2, el mpacce Toto, kadd@s elxev. ei Expate TodTO, KaA@s Foxe. 
. I. day mpdoon TodTO, KaA@s Eket. 2. ef mpdooo TOUT, kadas by Exon 
. I. el Expacoe rovro, kada@s by elxev. 2. ci Expate TovTO, KadGs by Erxer 
1. édy ree KAérry, KoAdCEeTale 2. ef ris KACMTOL, éxoArd ero. 


§ 305.] Classification. 323 


si adfuerit, bene erit, 7f he is (shall have been) here, i¢ will [then] de well | 
(but it will not begin to be well until he actually is here). 

2. Less vivid 

(a) Present Subjunctive in both clauses. 


si adsit, bene sit, if he should be (or were to be) here, zt would be well. 

(8) Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apodosis 
(condition thought of as completed before conclusion begins). 

si adfuerit, bene sit, ¢f ke should te (should have been) here, tt would 

[then] de well. 

¢. CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT. 

1. Present, contrary to fact. Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses. 

si adesset, bene esset, if he were [now] here, it would be well (but ne is 

NOT here). 

2. Past, contrary to fact. Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses. 

si adfuisset, bene fuisset, 7f he had [then] dcen here, it would have been 

well (but he was NOT here), 

.@. GENERAL ConpliTIOoNs. Usually not differing in form from Par- 
ticular Conditions (a, 4, and ¢); but sometimes distinguished in the 
cases following : — 5 

1. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time). 

(a) Present Subjunctive second person singular in protasis, Present 
Indicative in apodosis. 

si hdc dicas, créditur, ifany one [ever] says this, it is [always] believed. 

(8) Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present in apodosis. 

si quid dixit, creditur, 7/ he [ever] says anything, it is [always] believed. 

2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time). 

(a) Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apod- 
osis. 

si quid diceret, crédébatur, if ke [ever] said anything, it was [always] 

believed (= whatever he said was always believed). 

(8) Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect in apodosis. 

si quid dixerat, credeébatur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] 

believed. 


REMARK. — The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus ¢f he 
is alive now is a PRESENT condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present 
Indicative; if he is alive next year is a FUTURE condition, expressed in Latin by 
the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a PRESENT condition con- 
trary to fact, and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive; ¢f he were to 
see me thus is a FUTURE condition less vivid to be expressed by the Present Sub- 
junctive; and so too, i/you advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid, 


324 Syntax: Conditional Sentences. [§ 306. 


3. Present and Past Conditions— Nothing Implied. 


306. In the statement of present and past conditions 
whose falsity is NOT implied, the present and past tenses 
of the Indicative are used in both Protasis and Apodosis. 
Thus, — 


si tu exercitusque valétis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), ¢f you and the army are 
well, it is well. [Present Condition. ] 

haec igitur, si RoOmae és; sin abes, aut etiam si ades, haec negotia sic sé 
habent (Att. v. 18), chis, chen, if you are at Rome; but if you are 
away — or even if you are there — these matters are as follows. 
[ Present. ] 

si qui magnis ingeniis in e0 genere exstiterunt, non satis Graecorum gloriae 
responderunt (Tuscul. i. 3), if any men have appeared of great genius 
in that branch, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks. 
[ Past Condition.] 

accepi R6ma sine epistula tua fasciculum litterarum in quo si modo valuisti - 
et Romae fuisti Philotimi diicd esse culpam n6n tuam (Att. v. 17), 7 
have received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from you, 
which, provided you have been well and at Rome, I take to be the fault 
of Philotimus, not yours. [Mixed: Past condition and present con- 
clusion. ] 

quas litteras, si Rémae es, vidébis putésne reddendas (Att. v. 18), as f 
this letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in your opinion it 
ought to be delivered. [Mixed: Present and Future.] 

si nemo impetravit adroganter rog6é (Ligarius 30), ¢f 0 one has suc- 
ceeded in obtaining it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.] 


a. In these conditions, the apodosis need not always be in the Indica- 
tive; but may assume any form, according to the sense. Thus,— 


si placet ... videamus (Cato M. 15), ¢f you please, let us see. [Hortatory.] 

fuerit hdc cénsdris, si iudicabat (Div. i. 29), seeppose it was the censor’s 
duty, if he judged it false. [Hortatory Subjunctive.] 

si nondum satis cernitis, recordamini (Milon. 61), if you do not yet see 
clearly, recollect. [Imperative.] 

si quid habés certius, velim scire (Att. iv. 10), ¢/ you have any trust- 
worthy information, I should like to know #t. [Subjunctive of Mod- 


esty, § 311. 4.] 


NoTE.— Although the form of these conditions does not imply anything as to 
the truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some such 
implication ; as, — 


nolite, si in nostro omnium flett nillam Jacrimam aspexistis Mildnis, hoc 
minus ei parcere (Milon. 92), do not, if amid the weeping of us all 
you have seen no tear [in the eyes] of Alilo, spare him the less 
that, E : 


§§ 306, 307. ] Future Conditions. | 325 


petimus 4 vobis, iudices, sI qua divina in tantis ingeniis commendatio 
débet esse, ut eum in vestram accipiatis fidem (Archias 31), we ask 
you, judges, if there ought to be anything in such genius to recommend 
it do us as by a recommendation of the gods, that you receive him under 
your protection. 


In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause: but the cause is put 
by the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers are to 
draw the inference for themselves, In this way the desired impression is made 
on their minds more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been 
used, 


4. Future Conditions. 


307. Future Conditions may be more or less vivid. 

1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a 
distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis express- 
ing what w2// de the result. 

2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is 
less distinct, the apodosis expressing what wozld be the 
result in the case supposed. 


a. In the more vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used 
in both protasis and apodosis: as, — 


sanabimur si volémus (Tus. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish. 
quod si legere aut audire volétis ... reperiétis (Cato M. 20), ¢f you will 
{shall wish to] read or hear, you will find. 


NOTE. — In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative, 
rarely by the future with SHALL, Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found 
in the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf. } 276. ¢) ; as,— 


si vincimus, omnia nobis tuta erunt; sin metu césserimus, eadem illa 
advorsa fient (Sall. Cat. 58, 3), ¢f we conquer, all things will be safe 
for us; but if we yield through fear, those same things will become 
hostile. 

si pered hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (Ain, iii. 606), if J perish, it 
will be pleasant to have perished at the hands of men. 


5. In the Zess vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is used 
in both protasis and apodosis: as, — 


haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare débeat (Cat. i. 19), 
if your country should thus speak with thee, ought she not to pre- 
vail ? 

quod si quis deus mihi largiatur ... valdé reciisem (Cat. Maj. 83), du¢ 
if some god were to grant me this, I should stoutly refuse. : 


326 Syntax: Conditional Sentences. [$ 307. 


REMARK.— The present subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the 
‘future in apodosis from a change in the point of view of the speaker.1 
¢. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the 
apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future Indic- 
ative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present Subjunc- 
tive: as, — 
sin cum potuero, non véner6, tum erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2), du¢ if J do nol 
come when I can, he will be unfriendly. 
si non féceris ignoscam (Fam. v. 19), ¢/ you do not do it, I will excuse you. 
REMARK.— The Future Perfect is very often used in the apodosis of a future 
condition: as,— 
vehementer mihi gratum féceris, si hunc adoléscentem himanitate tua 
comprehenderis (Fam. xiii. 15), you will do (will have done) me a@ 
~ great favor, if you receive this young man with your usual courtesy. 


ad. Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the 
apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in | 
-dus and -rus, and verbs of mecessity, Possibility, and the like: as, — 
alius finis cénstituendus est si prius quid maximé reprehendere Scipio 
solitus sit dixerO (Lal. 59), another limit must be set if I first state 
what Scipio was wont most to find fault with. 
si mé praeceperit fatum, vos mandasse memento, if fate cuts me off too 
soon, do you remember that I ordered this (Q. C. ix. 6, 26). 
nisi oculis videritis insidias Miloni a Clodio factas, nec déprecatiri sumus 
nec postulatiri (Milon. 6), wzless you see with your own eyes the 
plots laid against Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc. 
non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Ver. iv. 87), / cannot accuse him 
if I should desire to. | 


é. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Present 
or even a Future in protasis, to represent the conclusion rhetorically as 
already accomplished: as, — 

si hoc bene fixum in animo est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), ¢f ¢his is well fixed 

in your minds, you have conquered. (For you will have conquered. | 
si eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), if you shall have kept 
the same spirit, we have conquered. 

f. A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time, with- 
out implying that it is contrary to fact (§ 308). In such cases the 
Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used: as, — 





1 It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not 
upon the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not; as in 
the proverbial “If the sky falls, we shall catch larks,” the impossible condition is 
ironically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some Reber supposed 
condition stated by some one else, 


3 
, 
7 


§§ 307, 308.| Conditions Contrary to Fact. 327 


non poterat nisi vellet (B. C. iii. 44), was not able unless he wished. 

tumulus apparuit . . . si luce palam irétur hostis praeventurus erat (Liv. 
xxii. 24), a hill appeared... if they should go openly by light, the enemy 
would prevent. [The first two appear like ind. disc., but are not. An 
observer describing the situations as present ones would say potest si 
velit (etc., see @), and no ind. disc. would be thought of. The only 
difference between these and the third is that in them the forms in d 
are used instead of the subjunctive. ] 

Caesar si peteret ... non quicquam proficeret (Hor. Sat. i. 3. 4), if even 
Cesar were to ask he would gain nothing. [Here the construction is 
not contrary to fact, but is simply sI petat non proficiat, thrown into 
past time. ] 


5. Conditions Contrary to Fact. 


308. In the statement of a supposition known to be 
false, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used 
in both Protasis and Apodosis.1. The imperfect refers to 
Present Time, the pluperfect to Past: as, — 


quae si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret meus (Cat. Maj. 
38), if L could not [now] follow this (an active life), yet my couch would 
afford me pleasure. [Present.] 

nisi tu Amisissés, nunquam recépissem (id. 11), zsless you had lost it, I 
should not have recovered it. [Past.] 

si meum cOnsilium auctoritasque valuisset, ti hodié egérés, nos liberi 
essémus, respublica non tot ducés et exercitiis Amisisset (Phil. ii. 37), 
if my judgment and authority had prevailed [as they did not], you 
would this day be a beggar, we should be free, and the republic would 
not have lost so many leaders and armies. [Mixed Present and Past.] 

qui nisi revertisset, in eO conclavi ei cubandum fuisset, quod proxima 
nocte conruit: ruina igitur oppressus esset; at id neque si fatum 
fuerat effigisset, nec si non fuerat in eum casum incidisset (Div. ii. 
20),ifithad been decreed by fate, he would not have escaped, etc. [The 
apodosis of fuerat is not efftigisset, but the whole conditional sen- 
tence of which efftigisset is the apodosis; the real protasis of Pep. 
set is revertisset (cf. § 311. 2).] 


a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to past 
time, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or con- 
tinued action is denoted, or when the condition ¢f true would still 
exist: as, — 





1 The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not inherent in the Subjunc- 
tive; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus the 
time for the happening of the condition has, at the time of writing, already passed; 
so that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So past 
forms implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in apodosis in 


__ this construction (see @, below, and head-note, p. 320), 


— 


328 Syntax: Conditional Sentences. [§ 308 


hic si mentis esset suae, ausus esset Ediicere exercitum (Pis. 50), ifhe were 
of sane mind, would he have dared to lead out thearmy? [Here esset 
denotes a continued state, past as well as present. ] 

non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris patéret (Verr. ii. 
3), [the power of Carthage] would not have fallen, unless that station 
had been open to our fleets. [Without the condition, patébat. ] 


REMARK.— This use necessarily arises from the fact that the pluperfect is 
equivalent to a future perfect iz praeferitd, and so represents the action as com- 
pleted and momentary, rather than as continuing. 


d. In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the Past tenses of 
the Indicative may be used to express what was zutended, or Zzkely, or 
already begun: as, — 


si licitum esset matrés veniébant (Verr. v. 129), che mothers were coming 
if it had been allowed (see § 305. ¢. 2). 

in amplexus filiae ruébat, nisi lictorés obstitissent (Tac. A. xvi. 32), Le was 
about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the lictors had opposed. 

iam tuta tenébam, ni gens crudelis ferro invasisset (Ain. vi. 358), 7 was 
just reaching a place of safety, had not the fierce people attacked me. 


NOTE.— In such cases the apodosis may be regarded as elliptical. Thus, — 


matres veniebant (et vénissent) si licitum esset, the matrons were coming 
(and would have kept on) if z¢ had been allowed. [So with paene, 
prope, etc. ] 

REMARK. — In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in tiire to the 


imperfect subjunctive, and the perfect or pluperfect indicative to the pluperfect 
subjunctive, 


c. Verbs and expressions denoting mecessity, propriety, possibility, 
duty,) when used in the Apodosis of a condition contrary to fact are 
regularly put in the Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative instead 
of the Subjunctive: as, — 


si ita putasset certe optabilius Miloni fuit (Milon. 31), 7f he had thought 
so, surely it would have been preferable for Milo. 

si Romae privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat déligendus (Manil. 
50), fhe (Pompey) were at this time a private citizen at Rome, yet 
he ought to be appointed. 

quod esse caput débébat si probari posset (Fin.iv. 23), what ought to be 
the main point tf it could be proved. 

nam nos decébat lugére (Tuscul. i. 115), for it would befit us to mourn. 





1 Such are possum, decet, oportet, d6beo, and the Second Periphrastic 
Conjugation. Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of futurity (cf. 
note above). Thus, decet m6 [hodié] ire cras, means if is proper for me 
[to-day] ¢o go to-morrow; and, decébat mé [heri], ire hodié, z¢ was proper 
jor me [yesterday] ¢o go to-day, usually with the implication that / dave not wt geome as 
1 was bound to, 


$§ 308, 309. ] Bonerat Conditions. 329 


NOTE 1r.— In this construction it is only the éhing necessary (etc.) that is con- 
ditioned, and not the necessity itself. If the mecessity ztse/f is conditioned, the 
Subjunctive is used as with other verbs, The difference is often imperceptible, but 
may be seen in the following example: — 

quid facere potuissem nisi tum cénsul fuissem? consul autem esse qui 

potui nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem 4 pueritia (Rep. i. 10), what 
could I have done if I had not then been consul; and how could } 
have been consul if I had not followed that course of life from boyhood. 


NoTE 2,—This construction is sometimes carried still further in poetry; as,— 


si non alium factaret oddrem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), 24 were @ laurel, 
but for giving out a different odor. 


d. The participle in -tirus with eram or fui may take the place of 
an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the Apodosis of a condition 
contrary to fact: as, — 

quid enim futiirum fuit [= fuisset], si... (Liv. ii. 1), what would have 

happened if, etc. 

neque ambigitur quin ... id factiirus fuerit, si... (id.), zor és there any 

question he would have done it if, etc. (Direct: fecisset. } 
ex quo intellegi potest quam aciti natura sint, qui haec sine doctrina crédi- 
tari fuerint (Tuse. i. 48), Aerce it may be understood how keen they 
are by nature, who, without instruction, would have believed this, 
[Here the condition is contained in the words sine doctrina.] 

adeo parata seditid fuit, ut Othdnem raptiri fuerint, ni incerta noctis 
timuissent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy that 
they would have seized upon Otho, had they not feared the hazards of 
the night. [Ina main clause; rapuissent ni timuissent.) 


NoTEe.—This construction is regularly used when the apodosis is itself a 
dependent clause requiring the subjunctive, and also in Indirect Discourse, In 
Indirect Discourse fuisse replaces eram or fui (see § 337). 

é. The Present and Perfect subjunctive are sometimes used in poetry 
in the protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact: as, — 

ni comes admoneat, inruat (En. vi. 293), 2ad not his companion warned 

him, he would have rushed on, 

ni faciat, maria ac terras ferant (id. i. 58), wsless he did this, they would 

bear away sea and land. 


NoOTE.—This is probably a remnant of an old construction. Its use puts the 
condition in a vivid form,—as if possible at any moment in the future though not 
now true, 


6. General Conditions. 
309. General Conditions (§ 304. @) have usually the 
same forms as Particular Conditions, But they are some 
times distinguished in the following three cases :—_ 


330 Syntax: Conditional Sentences. [§§ 309, 310 


a. The Subjunctive is sometimes used in the second person singular, 
to denote the act of an Indefinite Subject (you = any one). Here the 
Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis: as, — 

mens prope uti ferrum est: si exerceas conteritur; nisi exerceds, rubi- 

ginem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), the mind is very like iron: if you 
use tt, it wears away; tf you don’t use tt, it gathers rust. 
virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas, cOnsequitur (Tusc. i. 
91), glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that ts not one’s aim. 

si prohibita imptne transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque pudor est 
(Tac. A. iii. 54), tf you once overstep the bounds with impunity, there is 
no fear nor shame any more. 

si céderés placabilis (Tac. Ann.), [Ze was] easily appeased if one yielded. 

4. In later writers (not in Cicero), the Imperfect and Pluperfect 
Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect Indicative in apod- 
osis, to state a repeated or customary action in past time: as, — 

accusatorés, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiébantur (Tac. A. vi. 30), che 

accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment. 

c. Ina general condition in present time, the protasis often takes 
the Perfect, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For past time, 
the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in the apodosis. 
Thus, — 

si quos aliqua membrorum parte inutilés notavérunt, necari iubent (Q. C. 

ix. 1,25), ¢f they [ever] mark any infirm in any part of their limbs, 
they [always] order them to be put to death. [Present.] 

si a persequendo hostés deterrere nequiverant ab tergo circumveniébant 

(Jug. 50), ¢f [ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pur- 
suing, they [always] surrounded them in the rear. [Past.] 

@. In all other cases, general suppositions— including those intro- 
duced by Indefinite Relatives—are not distinguished in form from 
Particular Conditions. 


7. Condition Disguised. 

310. In many sentences properly conditional, the Prot- 
asis is not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated 
in some other form of words or implied in the nature of 
the thought. Thus, — 

a. The condition may be implied in a Clause or in a Participle, 
Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase. Thus, — 

facile mé paterer —illo ipsd iudice quaerente — pro Sex. Roscio dicere 

(Rosc. Amer. 85), J should readily allow myself to speak for Roscius 
if that very judge were conducting the trial, [Present contrary to fact: 
si quaereret, etc. ] 


§ 310.] Condition Disgutsed. 331 


non mihi, nisi admonit6, venisset in mentem (De O. ii. 180), i¢ would not 
have come into my mind unless [I had been] reminded. [Past con- 
trary to fact: nisi admonitus essem. ] 

nilla alia géns tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 54), chere is 
no other people that would not have been crushed by such a weight of 
disaster. [Past contrary to fact: si alia fuisset.] 

nemo unquam sine magna spé immortalitatis, se pro patria offerret ad 
mortem (Tusc. i. 32), 20 one, without great hope of immortality, would 
ever expose himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to fact: 
nisi magnam spem habéret. ] 

quid hunc paucdrum annorum accéssid iuvare potuisset (Lel. 11), what 
good could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been 
added)? [Past contrary to fact: si accéssissent. | 

qui igitur mihi ferarum laniatus oberit nihil sentienti (Tuscul. i. 104), 
what harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I don’t feel any- 
thing (feeling nothing)? [Future more vivid: si nihil sentiam.] 

incitata semel proclive labuntur (Tusc. iv. 42), if once given a push, they 
slide down rapidly. [Present General: si incitata sunt.] 


6. The condition may.be contained in a Wish (oftative subjunctive), 
or expressed as an Exhortation or Command (hortatory subjunctive, or 
tmiperative): as, — 

utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nobis ndn esset (Fam. xii. 3), 7 wish 

I had been [chief]: he would not now be troubling us (i.e. if I had 
been). [Optative Subjunctive. } 

naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 24) drive out 

nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return. ([Hortatory.] 
rogés enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 69), for ask Aristo, he would deny. 

manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria(Cato M. 22), 

old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and dili- 
gence (§ 266.2). [Hortatory.] 

tolle hanc opinidnem, luctum sustuleris (Tusc. i. 30), remove this notion, 

and you will have done away with grief. [Imperative.] 

NOTE.— The so-called concessive subjunctive with ut and né is really hortatory, 
and often has the force of protasis (§ 313. a): as,— . 

ut enim ratidnem Platd nullam afferret, ipsa auctOritate mé frangeret (Tusc. 

i. 49), even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] he would overpower me, 
etc. 


c. Rarely the condition takes the form of an independent clause. 
as, — 


ridés: maidre cachinnO concutitur (Juv. iii. 100), you laugh; he shakes 
with louder laughter (= if you laugh, he shakes). 





1 This usage is probably the origin of the use of the subjunctive in Protasis; 
the subjunctive being used first as in § 266, while the conditional particle is a form 
of an indefinite pronoun (see head-note, p. 320), 


332 Syntax: Conditional Sentences. -TS§-310, 322, 


commové: sentiés (Tusc. iv. 54), stir him up [and) you'll find, etc. 

dé paupertate agitur: multi patientes pauperes commemorantur (Tusc, 
iii. 57), we speak of poverty ; many patient poor are mentioned. 

d. The condition is often contained in a Relative Clause (see § 316). 

REMARK.— For the use of a participle as APODOSIS, see § 304. ¢ 


8. Condition Omitted. 


311. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be 
inferred from the course of the argument. Thus, — 
poterat Sextilius impune negare: quis enim redargueret (Fin. ii. 55), Sex- 
tilius might have denied with impunity; for whe would prove him 
wrong (if he had). 
REMARK.— Under this head belongs the so-called POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE, 


I. POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE. 

a. The Potential Subjunctive is used to denote an action not as 
actually performed, but as Possible. 

In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to 
the immediate future; the Imperfect to Zas¢ time. The second person 
is common, indicating an Indefinite Subject (cf. § 309. a). Thus, — 

hic quaerat quispiam (N. D. ii. 133), eve some one may ask. 

assimilare freto possis (Ov. M. v. 6), you might compare. 

ut aliquis fortasse dixerit (Of. iii. 97), as one may perhaps say. 

forsitan haec illi mirentur (Verr. iv. 124), they may perchance marvel at 

these things. 

tum in lecto quoque vidérés susurros (Hor. Sat. ii. 8.77), then on each couch 

you might hear whisperings. 

NOTE 1.— The Present is sometimes used for the Imperfect: as, — 

migrantis cernas (Ain. iv. 401), you might have seen them moving. 

NOTE 2,— The Pluperfect is rare in this construction. Its place is supplied by 
the Imperfect. 

putassés éius luctus aliquem finem esse debére (Sen. Dial. 6, 13), you 

would have thought there ought to be some end to his grief. 


NOTE 3.— The subjunctive with forsitan does not differ in meaning from the 
Potential Subjunctive, but is really an Indirect Question (§ 334. g). 


_ REMARK.—The potential subjunctive is strictly an apodosis with omitted . 


protasis, Sometimes the protasis may be easily supplied, but often none is 
present to the mind of the speaker. So also the Subjunctive of Modesty (4, 
below). 

II. SUBJUNCTIVE OF MODESTY. 


5. The Subjunctive is used in cautious, modest, or hypothetical | 


statements (conzunctivus modestiae). ‘This use is especially common 
in a polite wish, with velim or vellem. Thus, — 


§ 311.] Condition Omitted. : 333 


pace tua dixerim (Mil.103), J would say by your leave. 

haud sciam an (Lelius 51), / should incline to think. 

tu velim sic existimes (Fam. xii. 6), 7 should like you to think so. 

vix ausim crédere (Ov. M. vi. 561), / should hardly dare believe. 

vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil.i.16) 7 could wish Antony were here. 
[Here vellem implies an unfulfilled wish in present time; vol6d or 
nol6 would express a peremptory wish. ] 

haec erant fere quae tibi nota esse vellem (Fam. xii. 5), ¢hzs ts about what 
I should like you to know. (Here vellem is simply velim transferred 
to past time on account of erat (epistolary), by sequence of tenses, 
and does not imply an impossible wish. ] 


III. VERBS OF NECESSITY. 


¢. The Indicative of verbs signifying mecessity, propriety, and the 
like, may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either future 
or contrary to fact: as, — 


longum est ea dicere, sed... (Ses. 12), 7¢ would be tedious to tell, etc. 
[ Future. ] 

illud erat aptius, aequum cuique concedere (Fin. iv. 2), 2¢ would be more 
fitting to yield each one his rights. 

quanto melius fuerat (Off. iii. 94), ow much better it would have 
been. 

quod centra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. Maj.), whereas 
on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt by him. 

ipsum ertim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil.ii. 103), would it have been a 
great maiter to wait for the man himself ? 

nam nos decébat domum lugére ubi esset aliquis in liicem éditus (Tuse. i. 
115), for it were fitting to mourn the house where a man has been born 
(but we do not). 

nunc est bibendum ... nunc Saliaribus ornare pulvinar deoOrum tempus 
erat dapibus sodales (Hor. Od. i. 37. 1), ac. 2¢ would be time (if it 
were for us to do it, but it is a public act). 


REMARK.— Notice that, in this construction, the Imperfect indicative refers to 
present time; the Pluperfect to simply past time, like the perfect. Thus oportébat 
means it ought to be [now], dut is not; Oportuerat means it ought to have been, 
but was not. 


NOTE.—In many cases it is impossible to say whether a protasis was present 
to the mind of the speaker or not (see third example above). 


9. Complex Conditions. 


d. Either the protasis or the apodosis may be a complex idea in 
which the main statement is made with expressed or implied qualifica- 
tions. In such cases the true logical relation of the parts is sometimes 
disguised: as, — 


334 Syntax: Conditional Sentences. [§§ 311, 312. 


si quis horum dixisset...si verbum dé républica fécisset ... multa plira 
dixisse quam dixisset putaretur (Rosc. Am. 2), tf any of these had 
spoken in case he had said a word about politics, he would be thought 
to have said much more than he did say. (Here the apodosis of 
dixisset is the whole of the following statement (si... putarétur), 
which is itself conditioned by a protasis of its own: si verbum, etc.]. 

quod si in hoc mundo fieri sine deo non potuit ne in sphaera quidem 
edsdem motus sine divino ingenio potuisset imitari (Tusc. i. 63), ow 
if that cannot be done in this universe without divine agency, no more 
could [Archimedes] zz his orrery have imitated the same revolutions 
without divine genius. [Here si potuit (a protasis with nothing im- 
plied) has for its apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potuisset 
has a contrary-to-fact protasis of its own implied in sine... ingenid.] 

peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. Sat. ii. 1. 6), confound me (may I 
perish wretchedly) z/72t wouldn’t be better, [Here peream is apodosis 
to the rest of the sentence, while the true protasis to optimum erat, 
contrary to fact, is omitted. ] 


10. Particles of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted). 
312. The particles of Comparison — tamquam, tamquam 
si, quasi, Acsi, utsi, velutsi, veluti, and poetic ceu (all meaning 
as if), and quam si (than tf) —take the Present or Perfect 
Subjunctive, unless the sequence of tenses requires the 
Imperfect or Pluperfect. Thus, — 


tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia were closed. 
tamquam si claudus sim (Plaut. Asin. ii. 4, 21), just as if I were lame (2.e. just 
as it would be if I should be lame). 
ita hos [honodrés] petunt, quasi honeste vixerint (Jug. 85), they seek them 
(offices) just as if they had lived honorably. 
quasi vero non specie visa itidicentur (Acad. ii. 58), as if forsooth visible 
things were not judged by their appearance. 
similiter facis Ac si me rogés (N.S. iii. 3), you do exactly as if you asked me. 
aequé ac si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), as much as if it were my 
own business. 
velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), as tf he were present in person. 
ceu cétera nusquam bella forent (Ain. ii. 438), as if there were no fighting 
elsewhere. [But sometimes with indic. in poetry, as Ain. v. 88.] 
magis quam si domi essés (Att. vii. 4), more than if you were at home. 
REMARK.— The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and 
Pluperfect Subjunctive with these particles; but the point of view is different in 
the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated just as if / were 
lame,— as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really means just 
as [it would be) if / should [at some future time] Je ame, and so is a less vivid 
future condition requiring the present subjunctive. Similarly quasi honesté 
vixerint, as if they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] 
ifthey should have lived honorably, and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive (§ 307. ¢). 


§ 313,] Concessive Clauses. 335 


NOTE,.— These subjunctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis 
implied in the particle itself. Thus in tamquam sj claudus sim the protasis 
is introduced by si, and the apodosis implied in tamquam, 


11. Concessive Clauses. 


313. The particles of Concession (meaning although, 
granting that) are the following: quamquam, quamlibet, 
quamvis, quantum vis, ut, né, cum, licet, etsi, tametsi, 
etiamsi. 

Some of these take the Subjunctive, others the Indica- 
tive. Thus, — 


a. Quamvis, ut, and n€ take the Subjunctive (§ 266.¢): as, — 


quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen ... (Or. 76), however incapable of 
speaking they themselves may be, yet, ete. 

ut neminem alium rogasset (Mil. 46), even if he had asked no other. 

né sit sane summum dolor: malum certé est (Tuscul. ii. 14), suppose pain 
és not the greatest evil, still it surely is an evil. 


NOTE, — Quamvis means literally, as much as you will, Thus in the example 
above, let them be as incapable as you will, still, etc. The subjunctive with quam- 
vis and n6 is hortatory; that with ut is of uncertain origin, 


6. Licet (properly a verb) takes a Substantive clause in the Sub- 
junctive (§ 331. ¢): as, — 


licet omnés in mé terrores periculaque impendeant (Rosc. Am. 31), chough 
all terrors and perils should menace me. 


NOTE, — The subjunctive with licet is by the sequence of tenses necessarily 
limited to the Present and Perfect tenses, 


c. Etsf, etiamsi, tametsi, even zf, take the same constructions as 
si (§ 305): as, — 

etsi abest mattritas (Fam. vi. 18), though ripeness of age is wanting. 

etsi nunquam dubium fuit (id. v. 19), although it has never been doubtful. 

etsi statueram (id. v. 5), hough [ had determined. 

etsi nihil aliud abstulissétis (Sull. 90), even if you had taken away nothing 
else. 

etiamsi quod scribas non habébis, scribito tamen (Fam. xvi. 26), even if 
you {shall} have nothing to write, still write. 

sed ea tametsi vos parvi pendébatis (Sall. Cat. 52), but although you re 
garded those things as of small account. 


@. Cum concessive takes the Subjunctive (see § 326): as, — 


eum mihi ndn omnin6o excidisset (Fam. v. 13), hough it had not entirely 
vanished [from my mind]. 


336 Syntax: Conditional Sentences.  [§§ 313, 314. 


NoTE.—JIn early Latin cum (quom) concessive usually takes the Indica- 
tive: as,— 
nil quom est nil defit tamen (Ter. Eun. 243), while I have nothing, still 
nothing is wanting. [See also.§ 326, note 3. ] 
ée. Quamquam introduces an admitted fact and takes the Indica- 
tive: as, — 
omnibus — quamquam ruit ipse suis cladibus — pestem denuntiat (Phil. xiv, 
8), though he is breaking down under his disasters, still he threatens 
all with destruction. 


f. Quamquam more commonly means avd yet, introducing a new 
proposition in the indicative: as, — 
quamquam haec quidem tolerabilia videbantur, etsi, etc. (Mil. 76), ena 
yet these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc. 


g. The poets and later writers frequently use quamvis and quam- 
quam like etsi, connecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunctive, 
according to the nature of the condition. Thus, — 


quamquam moverétur (Liv. xxxvi. 34), although he was moved, 

Pollid amat nostram, quamvis est rustica, musam (Ecl. iii. 84), Polio doves 
my muse, though she is rustic. 

quamvis pervéneras (Liv. ii. 40), though you had come. 

NoTE.— Even Cicero occasionally uses Quamquam with the Subjunctive- 

as,— 

quamquam né id quidem suspicidnem coitionis habuerit (Planc. 53), hough 

not even that raised any suspicion of a coalition. 


hk. The Relative pronoun qui is often used with the Subjunctive to 
express concession (see § 320. @). 
z. Concession is often expressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive with- 
out a particle (§ 266): as, — 
sit clarus Scipio, rnétur eximia laude Africanus, habeatur vir égregius 
Paullus ... erit profectd inter horum laudes aliquid loci nostrae gloriae 
(Catil. iv. 21), Jet Scipio be renowned, let Africanus be honored with 
especial praise, let Paulus be regarded as a remarkable man, {still] 
there will surely be some room for my glory amid the praises of these 
men. 
12. Proviso. 


314. Dum, modo, dummodo, or tantum, introducing a 
Proviso, takes the Subjunctive: as, — 


Oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 97), let them hate, if only they fear. 

valétudd modo bona sit (Brut. 64), provided the health is good. 

dummodo inter mé atque te murus intersit (Cat.i.10), provided only the 
5 A —- wall (of the city) ts detween us. 


§§ 314, 315.] Proviso; Si and its Compounds. 337 


a. Ina negative proviso né is used, with or without modo, etc.: as, 


modo né sit ex pecudum genere (Of. i. 105), provided [in pleasure] he be 
not of the herd of cattle. 

id faciat saepe, dum né lassum fiat (Cato R. R.v. 4), det him do this often, 
provided he does not get tired. 

dummodo ea (severitas) né variétur (Q. Fr.i. 1), provided only it (strict- 
ness) be not allowed to swerve. 

tantum né noceat (Ov. M. ix. 21), omly let it do no harm. 


NOTE.— The Subjunctive with modo is hortatory (§ 266. 7); that with dum and 
dummodo, a development from the use of the Subjunctive with dum in temporal 
clauses, } 328 (compare the colloquial, so long as my health is good, I don't care). 


6. The Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle sometimes ex- 
presses a proviso (see § 266. d): as, — 
sint Maeceénatés, non deerunt, Flacce, Marénés (Mart. viii. 56, 5); so there 
be Maecenases, Virgils will not be lacking. 


NOTE. — For a clause of Result expressing proviso, see § 319. 4 


13. Use of Si and its Compounds. 


315. The uses of some of the more common Conditional 
Particles may be stated as follows :— 


a. I. SI is used for afirmative, nisi (ni) and si n6n for negative 
conditions. With nisi (generally ws/ess) the apodosis is stated as uz- 
versally true except in the single case supposed, in which case it is 
(impliedly) zot true. Thus, — 

nisi Conon adest maered, witless Conon is here, J mourn (i.e. 1 am always 

in a state of grief except in the single case of Conon’s presence, in 
which case I am not). 

With si nén (zf zo?) the apodosis is only stated as true zu the (nega- 
tive) case supposed, but as to other cases no statement is made. Thus, — 

si Conon non adest maered, 7f Conon is not here, I mourn (i.e.1 mourn in 


the single case of Conon’s absence, nothing being said as to other cases 
in which I may or may not mourn). 


NOTE. — It often, however, makes no difference in which form the statement 
is made, 


2. Ni is an old form surviving in a few conventional phrases and 
reappearing in poets and later writers. 
Sometimes nisi si, eaceft zf, unless, occurs: as, — 
noli putare mé ad quemquam longidrés epistulas scribere, nisi si quis ad 
mé plura scripsit (Fam. xiv. 2), except in case one writes more to me. 
6. Nisi vérd and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or 
exception zyvonically, and take the Indicative: as, — 


338 Syntax: Conditional Sentences. [§ S15. 


nisi vérd L. Caesar cridélior visus est (Cat.iv.13), wsless indeed L. Cesar 
seemed too cruel, 

nisi forte volumus Epicuréodrum opinionem sequi (De Fato, 37), zsless to 
be sure we choose to follow the notion of the Epicureans. 


NoTE.— This is the regular way of introducing a reductio ad. absurdum in Latin. 
Nisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as,— 


nisi inum hoc faciam ut in puted cénam coquant (Plaut. Aul. 363), useless 
1 do this one thing, [make them] cook dinner in the well. 


c. Sive (seu)... sive (seu), whether... or, introduce a condition 
in the form of an alternative. They may be used with any form of 
condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also they 
are used without a verb. Thus, — 

nam ill6 locé libentissimé soled uti, sive quid mécum ipse cdgito, sive quid 

aut scribo aut lego (De Leg. ii. 1), for 7 enjoy myself most in that 
place, whether I am thinking by myself, or am either iiss. or 
reading. 


NoTE, — Sive ...seu and seu... sive are late or cat 
d. Nisi is often used loosely by the comic poets in the sense of 
only: as,— 
ecce autem dé integro: nisi quidquid est volo scire (Ter. Ad. 153), dzdé 
there it is again; only whatever it is I want to know it. 


§ 316.] Relative Clauses. 339 


Cuapter V.— Dependent Constructions. 


I.— RELATIVE CLAUSES. 


The Relative, being in origin a weak demonstrative (or possibly, in some cases, 
an interrogative), may be used indifferently with either the indicative or the sub- 
junctive, A simple relative, introducing a merely descriptive fact, takes the 
Indicative, as any demonstrative would do. Thus, tellis quae fuerat rudis, 
But many relative constructions take the subjunctive to indicate a closer logical 
connection between the relative clause and the main clause. 

These constructions have grown up from the future meaning of the subjunctive, 
each with its own special development, In general they are of two kinds, which 
are not, however, very distinct in meaning: 1. clauses where the implied logical 
connection is that of Purpose; 2. clauses which express more or less distinctly 
some Characteristic of the antecedent. Of these last the most common is the 
ordinary clause of Result, Besides these two classes, however, there are general 
relatives of Protasis, in which the indefinite relatives whoever, whenever, etc., are 
regarded as conditional expressions, equivalent to, /fany one, if at any time, etc.) 

Dependent Relative Clauses may be thus classified ;— 

1. Conditional Relative Clauses (§ 316). 

2. Clauses of PURPOSE (Final Clauses) ($ 317). 

3. Clauses of CHARACTERISTIC, including — 

a. Simple Result ( Comsecutive Clauses) (§ 319). 
4. Clauses of Characteristic (including cause and hindrance) (§§ 320, 321). 
¢. Clauses of Time (§ 322 ff. ). 


1. Conditional Relative Clauses. 


316. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or 
Relative Adverb may be treated as a conditional clause 
and take any of the constructions of Protasis! (§ 305): as, 

qui enim vitiis modum apponit, is partem suscipit vitiorum (Tusc. iv. 42), 

he who [only] sets a limit to faults, takes up the side of the faults. 
[=si quis apponit. ] 

quicquid potuit, potuit ipsa per se (Agr. I, 20), whatever power she had, 

she had by herself. [=si quid potuit.] 

quod qui faciet, non aegritudine solum vacabit, sed, etc. (Tuse. iv. 38); 

and he who does [shall do] this, will be free not only, etc. [=si quis 
faciet.] 

quisquis hic vénerit vapulabit (Plaut. Am. 153), whoever comes here 

shall get a thrashing. [=si quis vénerit. ] 





1 As in the Greek $s 4», Srayv, etc.; and in statutes in English, where the 
phrases if any person shall and whoever shail are used indifferently, 


- 340 Syntax: Dependent Constructions.  [§§ 316, 317, 


philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit 
degere (Cat. Maj. 2), philosophy, which iF anyone should obey, he 
would be able to spend his whole life without vexation. [= si quis 
pareat. | 
quaecumque causa vos hic attulisset, laetarer (De O. ii. 15), 7 should be 
glad, whatever cause had brought you here (i.e. if any other, as well as 
* = the one which did). [= si... attulisset.] 


NOTE.— The relative in this construction is always Indefinite in meaning, and 
usually in form, 


a. The special constructions of General Conditions are sometimes 
found in Conditional Relative Clauses: viz., — 


1. The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis 
with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis (§ 309. a): as, — 


bonus segnior fit, ubi neglegas (Jug. 31), , @ good man becomes less magia 
when you don’t watch him. 


_2. In later. writers the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the ) 
protasis and the Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 309. 4): as, — 


quocumque sé intulisset, victoriam secum trahébat (Liv. vi. 8), wherever 
he advanced, he carried victory with him. 


3. The Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the 
Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 309. ¢): as, — 


cum ad villam véni, hoc ipsum nihil agere me délectat (De O. ii. 24), 
whenever I come to the villa, this very doing nothing delights me (when- 
ever I have come, etc.). [Present General Condition. ] 

cum rosam viderat, tum incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever 

- “he saw (had seen) @ rose, then he thought spring was beginning. 
{Past General Condition. ] 


2. Clauses of Purpose. 


“NOTE. — The Subjunctive clause of Purpose has arisen either from the original 
future meaning of the subjunctive, or from its Zortafory use. Either affords a satis- 
factory analysis. If developed from the hortatory subjunctive, the Subjunctive of 
Purpose has come through a’kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see 
§. 340). Thus misit légatos qui-dicerent means either he sent ambassadors 
‘who would say (future use), or, he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e, let them say 
‘(cf. hortatory subjunctive in past tenses, § 266. ¢, and hortatory clauses in Indirect 
Discourse, § 339). 

» {As ut. (uti) is of relative origin, the construction with ut is the same as that 
of relatives. That with né is, no doubt, in origin, a Aortatory subjunctive, 


« $17. A clause SxPFESSINE, purpose is called a FINAL 
‘Clave 


§ 317.| . Clauses of Purpose. : 341 


Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut 
(uti), negative né (ut né), or by a Relative pronoun or 
adverb. | 

Final clauses may be divided into Pure, Relative, and 
Substantive. : 


1. Pure Clauses of Purpose are introduced by ut (uti) or né. 
They express the purpose of the main verb in the form of a modifying 
clause. 

2. Relative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the Relative pro- 
noun qui, or by the Relative adverbs ubi, unde, qué, etc. The ante- 
cedent is expressed or implied in the main clause. 

3. Substantive Clauses of Purpose are introduced by ut (uti), negative 
né. They differ from Pure final Clauses in having the construction of 
a substantive. (For Substantive Clauses of Purpose, see § 331.) 

Examples of Pure and Relative clauses of purpose are: — 


ab aratro abduxéerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 12), chey 
brought Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dictator. 

né qua éius adventus procul significatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), chat no sign 
of his arrival may be made at a distance. 

ut né sit impune (Mil. 31), chat it be not with impunity. 

scribebat Orationés quas alii dicerent (Bru. 206), Le wrote speeches for phen 
men to deliver. 

nihil habeo quod scribam, / ave nothing to write. 

ed exstincto fore unde discerem neminem (Cat. Maj. 12), that when 
he was dead there would be nobody from whom (whence) 7 could 
learn. 

huic né ubi consisteret quidem contra té locum reliquisti (Quinct. 73)s 
you have left him no ground even to make a stand against you. 

habébam qué cénfugerem (Fam. iv. 6), J kad [a retreat] whither I might 
flee. 


NoTE.-- The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corre- 
sponding demonstrative. Thus qui= ut is (etc.), ubi= ut ibi, and so on 


(cf. § 319. note). 


a. Sometimes the relative or conjunction has a correlative in the 
main clause: as, — 


Jegum ideircd omnés servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus (Clu. 146, for 
this reason we are all subject to the laws, that we may be free. 

e6 consilid ... ut (regularly), with this design, that, etc. 

ea causa... né, for this reason, lest, etc. 

hée consilid ut montium tegerentur altitidine (Nep. Milt, 5), wath chis 
purpose, that they might be protected by the height of the mountains. 


342 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§§ 317, 318. 


&. The ablative qué (= ut eG) is used as a conjunction in final 
clauses which contain a comparative: as, — 
libertate usus est, qué impunius dicax esset (Quinc. 11), he took advantage 
of liberty, that he might bluster with more meee (by ni ber the 
more easily). 
NOTE 1.—So quéminus (= ut ed minus) introduces a subjunctive clause 
after verbs of Aindering (see § 331. ¢). 


NOTE 2.— Occasionally qu6 introduces final clauses which do not contain a 
comparative: as,— 


qud sibi (exercitum) fidum faceret (Sall. Cat. 11), i order to make the 
army devoted to himself. 
¢. The Principal clause, on which a final clause depends, is often 
to be supplied from the context. Thus, — 
ac né longum sit .. . iussimts (Cat. iii. 10), and, not to be tedious, we ordered, 


etc. [Strictly, 2x order not to be tedious, I say, we ordered.| 
sed ut ad Dionysium redeamus (Tusc. v. 63), dzt to return to Dionysius. 


sed ut eddem revertar, causa haec fuit timoris (Fam. vi. 7), dz, co return 


to the same point, this was the cause of fear. 

satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dicam audacis (Phil. xiii. 12), 7¢ was the act of one 
rash enough, not to say daring. 

REMARK.— By a similar ellipsis the subjunctive is used with nédum (some- 

times n6), szi// less, not to mention that: as,— 

nédum ... salvi esse possimus (Clu..95), much less could we be safe. 

nédum isti...nOn statim cOnquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et flagiti (Leg. Ag. 
ii. 35), far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal. 

nédum in mari et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), s/7// less is it easy at sea, and 
on a journey. . 

quippe secundae rés sapientium animos fatigant; né illi corruptis moribus 
victoriae temperarent (Sall. Cat. 11), for prosperity overmasters the 
soul even of the wise; much less did they with their corrupt morals put 
any check on victory. 


NOTE. — With nédum the verb itself is often omitted: as, — 


aptius humanitati tuae quam tota Peloponnésus, nédum Patrae (Fam. vii. 
28, 1), fitter for your refinement than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing 
of Patra. 


REMARK.— Clauses of Purpose are sometimes rendered in English by ¢#a?, or 
in order that, with may or might; but more frequently by the Infinitive with To. 
For negatives, see § 319. d. R. 

318. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin 
in various ways; but never (except rarely in poetry) by 
the simple Infinitive as in English (§ 273). | 

The sentence, they came to seek peace, may be rendered — 


§ 318.] Clauses of Purpose; of Result. 343 


(1) vénérunt ut pacem peterent. [Final clause with ut (§ 317).] 

(2) venerunt qui pacem peterent. [Final clause with Relative (§ 317).] 

(3) [venerunt ad petendum pacem.] (Not found with transitive verbs (§ 300, 
note), but cf. ad parendum senatui.) [Gerund with ad (§ 300).] 

(4) venérunt ad petendam pacem. [Gerundive with ad (§ 300).] 

(5) venerunt pacem petendi causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerund with causa 


(§ 298. ¢).] Ae 
(6) venérunt pacis petendae causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerundive with causa& 
(§ 298. ¢).] 


—€7) VEnerunt pacem petituri. [Future participle (§ 293. 4): not in Cicero.] 
(8) venérunt pacem petitum. [Former supine (§ 302).] 


These forms are not used indifferently, but — 


a. The usual way of expressing purpose is by ut (negatively né), 
unless the purpose is closely connected with some one ae in which 
case a relative is more common. Thus, — 


Arria gladium dedit marito ut sé interficeret, Arria gave her husband a 
sword to kill himself (that he might kill himself). 
Arria gladium dedit marit6d qué sé interficeret, Arvia gave her husband a 
sword to kill himself WITH (with which he might, etc.). 


5. The Gerund and Gerundive constructions of purpose are usually 
limited to short expressions, where the literal translation of the phrase, 
though not the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange. 

c. The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion, 
and in a few idiomatic expressions (§ 302). 

@. The Future Participle used to express purpose, is a late construc- 
tion of inferior authority (§ 293. d). 


3. Clauses of Result, 


NoTE.— The use of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in 
Clauses of Characteristic. The clause of CHARACTERISTIC is a development 
peculiar to Latin, and has its origin in the fofentzal use of the subjunctive (§ 311. a). 
A. Protasis was, perhaps, originally implied, though this is not necessary to the 
analysis, ‘The difference between the Subjunctive in such clauses and the Indica- 
tive of simple description is that the subjunctive expresses what would happen in 
a supposed case, while the indicative states what does or did in fact take place. The 
most common and obvious use of this construction is to express a quality or 
characteristic of an indefinite antecedent (either expressed or implied). Thus, is 
[Epicurus] qui pénat summum bonum in voluptate would mean, literally, a man 
who would (in any supposable case) make the highest good consist in pleasure. This 
serves to express a characteristic of the indefinite person referred to by is, making 
him one of a class; while is qui pOnit would mean the man (Epicurus) who in 
fact does, etc. So, nbn sum ite hebes ut ita dicam would mean, literally, / am not 
dull in the manzer (degree) in which I should say that. Since in these charac- 
teristic clauses the guazzty often appears in the form of a supposed result, the con- 
struction readily passes over into Pure Result, with no idea of characteristic: as, — 


344 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§ 319. 


tantus terror omnés occupavit ut etiam ipse réx ad flimen perfigerit, so 
great panic seized all that the king himself fled to the river, 


319. A clause that expresses Result is called a Con- 
secutive Clause. | 

Consecutive Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by 
ut, so that (negative, ut ndn), or by a Relative (pronoun or 
adverb). 

Consecutive Clauses may be divided into Pure, Relative, 
and Substantive (cf. § 317). , . 


I. Pure Clauses of Result are introduced by ut or ut nén. They 
express the result of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause. 

2. Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the Relative pro- 
noun qui, or by the Relative adverbs ubi, unde, qué, etc.’ The 
antecedent is expressed or implied in the main clause. 

3. Substantive Clauses of Result are introduced by ut or ut nén 
They differ from Pure consecutive clauses in having the construction of 
a substantive. (For Substantive Clauses of Result, see § 332.) 

Examples of Pure and Relative Clauses of Result are, — 


tanta vis probitatis est ut eam in hoste diligamus (Lzl. 29), so great is 
the power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy. 

nam est innocentia affectid talis animi, quae noceat némini (Tus. iii. 16), 
for innocence ts such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one. 

sunt aliae causae quae plane efficiant (Top. 50), chere are other causes 
such as to bring to pass. 

nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate contendere (Tuscul. 
i. 43), there is no swiftness which can compare, ete. 

NOTE.,— The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corre- 

sponding demonstrative. Thus, qui= ut is (etc.), ubi= ut ibi, and so on (cf 


§ 317. note). 

REMARK.— Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words 
as tam, talis, tantus, ita, sic, aded, usque e6, which belong to the main 
clause. 


a. A negative result is regularly expressed by ut or qui with nin, 
ném6 and similar negatives (notné). Thus, — 


multis gravibusque vulneribus confectus ut iam sé sustinére nin posset 
(B. G. ii. 25), used up with many severe wounds so that he could no 
longer stand. 

nem6 est tam senex gui sé annum non putet posse vivere (Cato Major 24), 
nobody is so old as not to think that he can live a year. 


. NOTE. — When the result implies az effect intended (not a simple purpose), ut 
n6 or né is sometimes used as being less positive than ut nédn: as,— 


§ 319.] Clauses of Result. 345 


[librum] ita corrigas né mihi noceat (Fam. vi. 7), correct the book so that 
it may not hurt me. 


d. Frequently a clause of result is used in a restrictive sense, and so 
amounts to a Proviso (cf. § 314) : as, — 


hdc est ita utile ut né plane illidamur ab accisatoribus (Rosc. Am. 55), 
this is so far useful that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers (i.e. 
useful only on this condition, that, etc.). 

nihil autem molestum quod non deésideres (Cato Major 47), but nothing 
is troublesome which (= provided that) you do not miss. 


¢. The subjunctive with the Relative quéminus (= ut e6 minus) 
may be used, to express a result, after words of hindering or refusing 
(cf. § 317. 4, note 1): as, — 


nec aetas impedit quéminus agri colendi studia teneamus (Cat. Maj. 
60), nor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling the 


ground. 


d. A clause of result is introduced by quin after general negatives, 
where quin is equivalent to qui (quae, quod) n6n; so also after 
negative Clauses of hindrance, resistance, doubt, hesitation, and the 
like. Thus, — 


nihil est illorum quin [= quod non] ego illi dixerim (Plaut. Bac. iii. 9), 
there ts nothing of this that Ihave not told him. 

non dubito quin, 7 do not doubt that (cf. the Eng., 7 do not doubt but oe 

aegré (vix) abstinul quin..., / hardly refrained from, etc. 

nihil impedit quin .. ., chere“is nothing to prevent, etc. 

abesse n6n potest quin (Or. 233), ¢¢ cannot be but that, 


REMARK. — It is to be observed that the constructions of Purpose and Result 
in Latin are precisely alike in the affirmative (but see seguence, § 287. c), but that 
in the zegative Purpose takes n6, Result ut n6n, etc. Thus, — 


custoditus est né eflugeret, Ze was guarded in order that he MIGHT not escape. 
custoditus est ut non effugeret, Le was guarded so that he DID not. © 


So in Purpose clauses n6 quis, né quid, né fillus, né6é qué, néquandéd, 
necubi, etc., are almost always used; in Result clauses, ut n6ém6, ut nihil, ut 
nullus, etc. Thus, — 


ita multi sunt imbécilli senés ut niillum offici minus exsequi possint (Cat. 
Major 35), many old men are so feeble that they cannot perform their 
duties to society. 

qui summum bonum sic instituit ut nihil habeat cum virtite coniiinctum 
(Offic. i. 5), who has so settled the ei good that tt has parting in 
common with virtue. 

cernere né quis e0s neu quis contingere posset (Ain. i. 413), that 20 one 
might see them, no one touch them. 


346 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§§ 319, 320. 


né quand6 liberis proscriptorum bona patria reddantur (Rosc. Amer. 145), 
lest at some time the patrimony of the proscribed should be restored to 
their children. 

ipse ne quo inciderem reverti Formias (Att. viii. 3, 7), chat 7 might not 
come upon him anywhere. 

dispositis exploratoribus nécubi Romani copias transdiicerent (B. G. vii. 35), 
having stationed scouts here and there lest the Romans should lead their 
troops across anywhere, 

tu tamen eas epistolas concerpito néquand6 quid émanet (Att. ¥..22, 3), 
lest anything ever leak out, 


The clause of Result is sometimes expressed in English by the Infinitive with To 
or SO-AS-TO or an equivalent: as, — 

tam longé aberam ut non vidérem, / was too far away to see (so far that I 
did not see; cf. § 320. ¢). 


NOTE, — Result is never expressed by the Infinitive in Latin except by the poets 
in a few passages (§ 273. Rem.). 


4. Clauses of Characteristic. 


320. A relative clause with the Subjunctive is often 
used to indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, where 
there is no idea of Result (see § 319. head-note) 


This construction is especially common where the antecedent is 
otherwise undefined. Thus, — 


neque enim tu is es, qui nescias (Fam. v. 12), for you are not such a one, 
as not to know. 

multa dicunt quae vix intellegant (Finib. iv. 2), they say many thing: 
which (such as) they hardly understand. 

paci quae nihil habitura sit insidiarum semper est consulendum (Off. i. 3 5), 
we must always aim ata peace which shall have no plots. 

unde agger comportari posset, nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 15), here was 
nothing left, from which an embankment could be got together. 


a. A relative clause of characteristic 1s used after general expres- 
sions of existence or non-existence, including questions implying a 
negative. 3 

So especially with sunt qui, sere are [some] who; quis est qui. 
who ts there who? Thus, — 

sunt qui discéssum animi a corpore putent esse mortem (Tus. i. 18), ¢here 

are some who think that the departure of soul from body constitutes death. 
erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Ann. xvi. 29), chere were some whe 
pitied Helvidius. (Cf. est cum (§ 322. Rem.).] 

quis est qui id non maximis efferat laudibus (Lzl. 24), who ts there that 

does not extol it with the highest praise ? 


§ 320.] ~ Clauses of Characteristic. 347 


But cf. ille consul cui... fuit (Cat. iv. 1. 2). 

NOTE. — These are sometimes called Relative Clauses with an Indefinite Ante- 
cedent, but are to be carefully distinguished from the Indefinite Relative in protasis 
(§ 316). 

6. A relative clause of characteristic may follow finus and sdlus:, 
as,— 

nil admirari prope rés est tina sdlaque quae possit facere et servare bea- 

tum (Hor. Ep. i. 6. 1), 4o wonder at nothing is almost the sole and only 
thing that can make and keep one happy. 

sdlus es culiius in victoria ceciderit nemo nisi armatus (Deiotar. 34), you 

are the only man at whose victory no one has fallen unless armed. 


c. A clause of result or characteristic with quam ut, quam qui 
(rarely with quam alone), may be used after comparatives : as, — 


maidrés arborés caedébant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. xxviii. 5), 
they cut larger trees than what a soldier could carry (too large for a 
soldier to carry). 

Canachi signa rigididra sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 70), 
the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiffer than 
that they should). 

NOTE.— This construction corresponds to the English foo... ¢o, 

d. A relative clause of characteristic is used in expressions of Re- 

striction or Proviso (cf. § 319. 4): as,— 

quod sciam, so far as I know. 

Catonis orationés, quas quidem invénerim (Brut. 65), che speeches of Cato, 
at least such as I have discovered. 

servus est nemo, qui modo tolerabili condicione sit servititis (Cat. iv. 16), 
there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable condition of slavery. 


é. A relative clause expressing cause or concession takes the sub- 
junctive (§§ 313. 2, 321.4): as, — 
virum simplicem qui nos nihil célet (Or. 230), of / guitleless man, whe 
hides nothing from us! (Causal.] 
peccasse mihi videor qui a te discésserim (Fam. xvi. 1), / seem ¢o myself to 
have done wrong because I have left you. (Causal.] 
egomet qui sér6 Graecas litteras attigissem tamen complirés Athénis diés 
sum commoratus (De O.i.82), 7 myself though I began Greek literature 
late, yet, etc. (lit. [a man] who, etc.), [Concessive.] 
NOTE 1.—In this use the relative is equivalent to cum is, etc. It is often 
preceded by Ut, utpote, or quippe: as,— 
nec consul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset, moram certamini feécit (Liv. xlii. 7), 
nor did the consul delay the fight, since he had sought that very thing 
(as [being one] who had sought, etc.). 
ea nos, utpote qui nihil contemnere soleamus, non pertimescebamus (Att. 
ii. 24, 4), as being men who are accustomed to despise nothing. 


348 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§§ 320, 322. 


convivia cum patre non inibat, quippe qui né in oppidum quidem nisi 
perraro veniret (Rosc. Am. 52), since he did not even come, etc. 


NOTE 2.— The Relative of Cause or Concession is merely a variety of the 

Characteristic construction. The quality expressed by the subjunctive is connected 

x with the action of the main verb either as cause on account of which (SINCE) or as 
hindrance in spite of which (ALTHOUGH). 


f. Dignus, indignus, aptus, idGneus, take a clause of result with 
a relative (or rarely with ut): as, — 


digna in quibus élaborarent (Tuscul.i. 1), (things) worth spending their 
toil on (worthy on which they should, etc.). 

digna res est ubi tu nervos intendas tuds (Ter. Eun. 312), the affair is 
worthy of your stretching your sinews (worthy wherein you should, 
etc.). 

indignus eras qui facerés initriam, ¢¢ was beneath you to do a wrong (you 
were unworthy who should, etc.). 

idoneus qui impetret (Manil. 57), ft to obtain. 

indigni ut redimerémur (Liv. xxii. 59), «worthy to be ransomed. 


NOTE. — With these words the poets often use the Infinitive: as, — 


dignum notari (Hor. Sat. i. 3, 24), worthy to be stigmatized. 

fons rivo dare nomen idoneus (Hor. Ep. i. 16, 12), @ source fit to give a 
name to a stream. 

aetas mollis et apta regi (Ov.), a time of life soft and easy to be guided. 


5. Causal Clauses. 


NOTE. — Causal clauses take either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according 
to their construction; the idea of Cause being contained, not in the mood itself, 
but in the form of the argument, or in the connecting particles. 


321. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take 
the Indicative, when the reason is given on the authority 


of the writer or speaker; the Subjunctive, when the reason 
is given on the authority of axother: as,— 


1. Indicative : — 

cum tibi agam gratias quod mé vivere coégisti (Att. iii. 3), when I may 
thank you that you have forced me to live. 

quia postrema aedificata est (Ver. iv. I 19), because zt was built last. 


have spoken of tts advantage, let us speak of the method of effecting tt. 


2. Subjunctive : — 

mihi gratulabare quod audissés mé meam pristinam dignitatem obtinére 
(Fam. iv. 14, 1), you congratulated me because [as you said] you had 
heard, etc. 


ay 


aera ae a> <8 AS 


§§ 321, 322.] Causal Clauses ; Relations of Ti ime. 349 


noctt. ambulabat Themistoclés quod somnum capere non posset (Tusc. iv. 
44), Themistocles used to walk about at night because [as he said] he 
could not sleep. 

mea mater irata est quia non redierim (Plaut. Cistell. 101), my mother 
is angry because I didn’t return. 

non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Ver. ii. 1. 24), wot that this is necessary. 

NOTE 1.— The Subjunctive in this use depends on the principle of Intermediate 


Clauses (§ 341. @). 
NOTE 2.— Under this head what the speaker himself thought under other 


circumstances may have the Subjunctive (§ 341. d. Rem.): as,— 
ego laeta visa sum quia soror vénisset (Plaut. Mil. 387), Z seemed (in my 
dream) glad because my sister had come. 
So with quod even a verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive: as,-— 
rediit quod sé oblitum nescio quid diceret (Off. i. 40), Ze returned because 
he said he had forgotten something. 


NOTE 3.— The Subjunctive with quia is rare. The causal particle quand6 
takes the Indicative: as, — 


quando ita vis, di bene vortant (Plaut. Trin. 573), since you so wish, may 
the gods bless the undertaking. 


REMARK. — N6n quod, n6n quia, ndn quoniam, introducing a reason 
expressly to deny it, take the Subjunctive. N6n qué and n6n quin introduce 
a Result clause, but with nearly the same meaning (§ 341. d. Rem.). Thus,— 


pugilés ingemiscunt, ndn quod doleant, sed quia omne corpus intenditur 
(Tusce. ii. 56), doxers groan not because they are in pain, but because, etc. 
non quia philosophia percipi non posset (id. i. 1), wot that philosophy 
cannot be acquired. 
non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Ver. ii. 1.24), not that this ts necessary. 
non quin énitendum sit (De O. ii. 295), zot that pains must not be taken. 
a. Causal Clauses introduced by quod, etc., take the Subjunctive in 
Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent clause (see § 336). 
6. A Relative, when used to express cause, regularly takes the Sub- 
junctive (see § 320. @). 
c. Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see § 326). 
NoTE,—In early Latin cum causal takes the Indicative (§ 326. note 3). 


6. Relations of Time. 


NOTE.— Temporal clauses are introduced by particles which are almost.all of 
relative origin. They are construed like other relative clauses, except where they 
have developed into special idiomatic constructions. (For list of Temporal Parti- 
cles, see p. 124.) 


322. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quandé, either alone or 
compounded with -cumque, may be used as Indefinite Rela- 
tives, and have the constructions of protasis’ (cf. 3 316). 
Thus, — 


350 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§§ 322-24. 


cum id malum esse negas (Tusc. ii. 29), when you (the individual dis- 
putant) deny tt to be an evil. (Present, nothing implied (cf. § 306).] 

quod profect6 cum mé nilla vis cOgeret, facere non auderem (Phil. v. 51), 
which I would surely not venture to do, as long as no force compelled 
me. [Present, contrary to facts: cf. § 308.] 

cum videas eds .. . dolore non frangi (Tus. D. ii. 66), when you see that 
those are not brkie by pain, etc. [General condition: cf. § 309. a.] 

id ubi dixisset, hastam in fines.eorum emittebat (Liv. i. 32), when he had 
said this, he used to cast the spear into their territories. [Repeated 
action: see § 309. 4.] 

cum rosam viderat, tum incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever 
he had seen a rose he thought spring had begun. [Past general con- 
dition: cf. § 309. ¢.] 

REMARK. — The phrases est cum, fuit cum, etc., are used in general expres- 

sions like est qui, sunt qui (§ 320. a): as,— 

ac fuit quidem cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer 
(De Or. i. 1), and there was a time when I thought a beginning of rest 
would be justifiable on my part. 


323. Temporal clauses have two uses :!— 


1. They themselves define (with reference to the time of the speaker) 
the time of the clause on which they depend. 

2. They describe by its circumstances the time of the main clause, 
which is defined not by them, but by the main clause itself. 


Thus, in: When did the Emperor Frederick die? He died while the people were 
still mourning the death of his father, the time of the main clause, 4e died, is defi- 
nitely fixed by the temporal clause, while the people, etc., as is seen by the fact that 
the temporal clause answers the question, WHEN did he die?. But in: The Emperor 
Frederick died while the people were still mourning the death of his father, the time 
of the main clause is not defined by the temporal clause, but is regarded as suffi- 
ciently definite in itself (or from the context), The temporal clause is added to 
describe that time by the circumstances of the people's grief. 

These two sorts of temporal clauses the Romans distinguished by 
means of the mood, invariably using the Indicative in the first and the 
Subjunctive in the second. They commonly also used the particles and 


the tenses in accordance with this division. 
I. POSTQUAM, UBI, ETC. 
324. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut pri- 
mum, ut semel), simul atque (simul 4c, or simul alone) take the 
Indicative (usually in the perfect or the historical present): as, 





1 The terms Absolute and Relative Time naturally applied to these two uses 
have been abandoned in this book because they have given rise to misapprehension 
and have often been used by learners as pigeon-hole expressions to conceal a want 
of knowledge of the subject. 


§ 324. | Posrouan, Usi, ete. 351° 


milités postquam victoriam adepti sunt, nihil reliqui victis fécére (Sall. 
Cat. 11), when the armies had won the victory, they left <—_ to the 
vanquished. 

posteaquam forum attigisti (Fam. xv. 16), since you came to the 
forum. 

ubi omnés idem sentire intelléxit (B. G. iii. 23), when he understood that 

all agreed (thought the same thing). 

Catilina ubi eds convenisse videt secedit (Sall. Cat. 20), when Catiline 
sees they have come together, he retires. 

quod (sc. agmen) ubi pergere vident (Q. C. v. 3, 18), and when they see 
that it is advancing. 

Pompeius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit (B. C. iii. 94), 
when Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the army. 

simul ac persensit (/En. iv. 90), as soon as he perceived. 


NOTE, — These particles are appropriated to time defined, and take the histori- 
cal tenses in accordance with the distinction set forth in § 323. When they take 
the descriptive tenses (see a, below), they do zof describe the time by its circum- 
stances, but still define it, referring it to a then-existing state of things (/mperfect) or 
the then-existing result of a completed action (Plufperfect). 


a. These particles less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect 
indicative. The Imperfect in this case denotes a state of things; the 
Pluperfect, an action completed in past time. Thus, — 


postquam instructi utrimque stabant, duces in medium prdcédunt (Liv. 
i. 23), when they stood in array on both sides, the generals advance into 
the midst. 

P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et cénsor fuerat (Div. in Czec. 69), 
when Africanus had been (i.e. had the dignity of having been) ‘wice 
consul and censor. 

postquam id difficilius visum est, neque facultas perficiendi dabatur, 
ad Pompéium transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed too 
hard, and no means of effecting it were given, they passed over to 
Pompey. 

post diem quintum quam barbari iterum male piignaverant (= victi 
sunt), legati a Boccho veniunt (Jug. 110), the fifth duy after the bar- 
barians were beaten the second time, envoys come from Bocchus, 

haec iuventitem, ubi familiares opes défécerant, ad facinora incendebant 
(Sall. Cat. 13), when their inherited resources had given out. 

ubi pericula virtute propulerant (id. 6), when they had dispelled the dangers 
by their valor. 


b. Rarely some of these particles seem to take the subjunctive: 
as, pone } 
 posteiquam maxims aedificasset SrnAssetque classes (Manil. 9), having 


built and equipped mighty fleets (after he had, etc.). [But the more 
approved editions have postea cum. ] 


eae oes 


352 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§ 325. 


Il. CUM TEMPORAL. 
325. Cum (quom), TEMPORAL, meaning when, takes the 
Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Subjunctive, other tenses 
in the Indicative. Thus, — : 


cum servili bello premerétur (Manil. 30), when she (Italy) was under 

the load of the Servile War. 

cum id nintiatum esset, maturat (B. G.i. 7), when this had been reported, 

he made (makes) haste. 

cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt servi (Rosc. A. 120), when 

Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot. 
nempe eo [lituo] regionés direxit tum cum urbem condidit (Div. i. 30), 
he tracéd with it the quarters [of the sky] at the time he founded the 
city. 
“i [For examples with the Future, see ¢ below.] 

NOTE.— The Present takes the Indicative, because present time is generally, 
from its very nature, defined in the mind; and it is only when the circumstances 
are described as causal or adversative (see below, § 326), that the Subjunctive 
is used. The Perfect takes the Indicative as the tense of narration, as with post- 
quam, etc. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are, from their nature, fitter to descride 
than to define the time. 


a. Cum, temporal, sometimes takes the Imperfect and Pluperfect 
Indicative to indicate a definite past time: as, — 


rés cum haec scribébam erat in extremum adducta discrimen (Fam. xii. 
6), at the time I write (epistolary) the affair has been brought into 
great hazard. 

quem quidem cum ex urbe pellébam, hoc providebam animo (Cat. iii.16), 
when I was trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, I 
looked forward to this. 

fulgentés gladios hostium videbant Decii cum in aciem eorum inruébant 
(Tusc. ii. 59), the Decit saw the flashing swords of the enemy when 
they rushed upon their line. 

tum cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant (Man. 19), @¢ that time, 
when many had lost great fortunes in Asia. 

NOTE.— The distinction explained in § 323 is unknown to early Latin. In 

Plautus quom always has the Indicative unless the Subjunctive is required for 
some other reason. 


6. When the clauses are inverted, so that the logical temporal clause 
becomes the main clause, and the main clause becomes the temporal 
clause, the Indicative must be used with cum: as, — 


diés noOndum decem intercésserant, cum ille alter filius infans necatur — 


(Clu. 28), tex days had not yet passed, when the other infant son was 
killed. [Instead of, when ten days had not yet passed, etc. ] 

iamque lux apparebat cum procédit ad milites (Q. C. vii. 8, 3), and day 
was already dawning when he appears before the soldiers. 


§§ 325, 326.) Cum Causal and Concessive. 353 


hdc facere nocti apparabant, cum matrés familiae repcnte in publicum 
procurrérunt (B. G. vii. 26), hey were preparing to do this by night, 
when the women suddenly ran out into the streets. 


c. To denote future time cum takes the Future or Future Perfect 
Indicative: as,— | 
- ndn dubitabd dare operam ut té videam, cum id satis commodé facere 
potero (Fam. xiii. 1), 7 shall not hesitate to take bains to see you, when 
I can do it conveniently. 
longum illud tempus cum non ero (Att. xii. 18), chat dong time wher I 
shall be no more. 
cum véneris, cOgnosces (Fam. v. 7), when you come (shall have come), 
you will find out. 


III. CUM CAUSAL OR CONCESSIVE. 
8326. Cum CAUSAL Or CONCESSIVE takes the Subjunctive: 
as, — : 
cum solitidd ...insidiarum et metiis plena sit (Fin. i. 66), since solitude 
ts full of treachery and fear. [Causal.] 


cum initid nodn amplius dudbus milibus habuisset (Sall. Cat. 56), though 
at the start he had had not more than two thousand, [Concessive.] 


cum primi Ordinés . . . concidissent, tamen acerrimé reliqui resistébant 
(B. G. vii. 61), though the first ranks had fallen, still the others resisted 
vigorously. [Concessive. ] 


NOTE 1.— Cum in these uses is often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, 
praesertim: as,— 
nec reprehendd: quippe cum ipse istam reprehénsidnem non fagerim 
(Att. x. 3), 7 find no fault: since I myself did not escape that blame. 
NOTE 2.— These causal and concessive relations are merely variations of the 
idea of ¢2me. ‘The attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause of the action, 
or as tending to 4inder it (cf. qui causal and concessive, § 320. ¢). 
NOTE 3.—In early Latin cum (quom) causal and concessive usually takes 
the Indicative; as,— 
quom tua res distrahitur, utinam videam (Plaut. Trin. 573), sce your 
property is torn in pieces, oh! that J may see, etc. [See also § 313. d, 
note. } 


REMARK.,—Cum causal may usually be translated by sivce; Cum concessive 
by although or while ; either, occasionally, by when. 


a. Cum in the sense of quod, on the ground that, frequently takes 
the Indicative: as, — 


gratulor tibi cum tantum valés apud Dolabellam (Fam. ix. 14), Jcongratu- 
late you that you are so strong with Dolabella. 


REMARK.— This use of the indicative appears to be a colloquial relic of the 
old Indicative construction with Cum (see note 3, above). 


354 Syntax: Dependent Constructions.  [§§ 326-28, 


6. Cum ... tum, signifying doth... and, usually takes the Indica- 
tive; but when cum approaches the sense of w&zle or though, it may 
have the Subjunctive (§ 326). Thus,— 

cum multa non probd, tum illud in primis (Fin.i.18), while there are 

many things | do not approve, there is this in chief. But, — 

cum rés tota ficta sit pueriliter, tum né efficit quidem quod vult (ib.), 

while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not even make his 
point (accomplish what he wishes). 


IV. AVTEQUAM AND PRIUSQUAM. 
$27. Antequam and priusquam, Jefore, have in narration 
the same construction as cum temporal (§ 325): as, — 


antequam tuas légi litteras (Att. ii. 7), defore [ read your letter. 

neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit adulescens (Liv. xxxix. 10), she 
did not let the young man go tilt he pledged his faith. 

antequam hominés nefarii dé med adventu audire potuissent, in Mace- 
doniam perrexi (Planc. 98), before those evil men could learn of my 
coming, I arrived in Macedonia. 

NOTE. — The idea of purpose regularly requires the subjunctive: as, —nun- 
quam prius discéssit quam ad finem sermo esset perdiictus, ze. he waited for the 
conversation to be finished. 

a. Antequam and priusquam, when referring to future time, take 
the Present or Future Perfect Indicative; rarely the Present Subjunc- 
tive: as, — 

priusquam dé céteris rebus responded, de amicitia pauca dicam (Phil. ii. 

3), before 1 reply to the rest, I will say-a little of friendship. 
non defatigabor antequam illorum ancipites vias percéperd (De Or. iii. 
145),/ shali not weary tili I have traced out their doubtful ways. 
antequam veniat litteras mittet (Ag. ii. 53), defore he comes, he will send 
a letter. 


6. In a few cases the Subjunctive of protasis is found with antequam 
and priusquam (cf. § 309. a): as, — 
in omnibus negotiis priusquam aggrediare, adhibenda est praeparatio 
diligens (Offic. i. 73), i all undertakings before you proceed to 
action, careful preparation must be used. 
V. DUM, DONEC, AND QUOAD. | 
328. Dum, dénec, and quoad, implying purpose, doubt, 
or futurity, take the Subjunctive, otherwise the Indicative. 
x. Subjunctive: as, — 
exspectas fortasse dum dicat(Tus. ii. 17), you are waiting perhaps for 
him to say (till he say). 


§ 328, 329.] Substantive Clauses. 355 


iratis subtrahendi sunt ei in quos impetum cOnantur facere dum sé ipsi 
colligant (Tusc. iv. 78), ¢// they come to their senses (collect them- 
selves). 

Aenean morando sustinuit dum genitor protéctus abiret (Ain. x. 800), he 
kept Aeneas in check till his father could get away in safety. 

' et dixit longé dénec curvata coirent inter sé capita (id. xi. 860), and drew 
it (the bow) wndil the curved tips touched. 

Epaminondas exercebatur plurimum luctando ad eum finem quoad stans 
complecti posset atque contendere (Nep. Epam. 2), Zpaminondas 
trained himself in wrestling so far as to be able to grapple standing 
and fight (in that way). 

2. Indicative (cf. a, below): as, — 

hoc féci dum licuit, intermisi quoad non licuit (Phil. iii. 33), 7 dd this so 
long as it was allowed, I discontinued it so long as it was not. 

causas innecte morandi dum pelago désaevit hiemps (/En. iv. 51), weave 
excuses for delay until the storm upon the sea hath spent its rage. 

donec rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31), chere was silence till he 
returned. 

quoad potuit restitit (Cat. Major 11), he resisted as long as he could. 

NOTE 1.— Quamdii takes the Indicative only ; as, — 

sé oppido tam dit tenuit quamdiii in provincia Parthi fuérunt (Fam. xii. 
19), he kept himself within the town so long as the Parthians were in 
the province. 

NOTE 2.— For dum and dummodo introducing a proviso, see § 314. 


a. Dum in the sense of w&z/e usually takes the Present Indicative 
to indicate a continued action in Jas? time, if that time is not contrasted 
with any other (§ 276 ¢. and note): as, — 


dum haec geruntur (B. G. i. 46), while this was going on. 


NoTE,— Dum, d6nec, and quoad in later writers sometimes take the Sub- 
junctive when the classical usage would require the Indicative: as, — 
nec obstitit falsis ddnec tempore ac spatid vanéscerent (Tac. Ann. ii. 82), 
nor did he contradict the falsehoods until they died out from lapse of 
lime. 
nihil sané trepidabant elephanti donec continenti velut ponte agerentur 
(Liv, xxi. 28), the elephants showed no alarm whatever so long as 
they went over the continuous bridge, as it were. 
REMARK. — With all temporal particles the Subjunctive is often found depend- 
ing on some other principle of construction. (See Intermediate Clauses below, 
P- 378.) 


IlL—SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES, 


329. A clause used as a noun is called a Substantive 
; Clause. 
i 


4 


350 Syntax: Dependent Constructions.  [§§ 329, 330. 


A Substantive Clause may be used as. the Subject or 
Object of a verb, as an Appositive or as a Predicate Nom- 
_inative or Accusative. 


NOTE,— Many ideas which in English take the form of an. abstract noun may 
be rendered by a substantive clause in Latin. Thus, Ze demanded an investigation, 
may be postulabat ut quaesti6 habérétur. The common English expres- 
sion FOR with the infinitive also corresponds to a Latin substantive clause: as, 
it remains for me to speak of the piratic war, reliquum est ut dé bell6 dicam 
piratics. 

REMARK.— When a Substantive Clause is used as Subject, the verb to which 
it is subject is called impersonal, and the sign of the construction in English is the 
so-called expletive IT. 


Substantive Clauses are classified as follows :— 


om Infinitive clause as Subject (§ 270). 


: VE USES? 
1. INFINITIVE CLAUSE d. Infinitive clause as Object (§ 330. B). 


a. Of Purpose (command, wish, fear) (§ 337). 


(ut, n6, qué, quin, b. Of Result (happen, effect, hinder) (§ 332). 


quominus). 
3. INDICATIVE CLAUSE with quod: Fact, Specification, Feeling. 
4. INDIRECT QUESTIONS: Subjunctive, introduced by Interrogative Word. 


2, SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSES: 


1. Infinitive Clauses. 


330. a. The Infinitive with Subject-Accusative may be 
used as the swdbject of sum and of many impersonal verbs 
(see § 270). , 

B. The Infinitive with Subject-Accusative is used as the — 
object 1 — 

1. Of all verbs and expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and h 
perceiving (Indirect Discourse) (§ 272). 

mé spero liberatum [esse] metu (Tusc. ii. 67), 7 trust [ have been fred ‘ 


from fear. ; 

dicit montem ab hostibus Lemar (B. G. i. 22), he says that the height ts” 
held by the enemy. 

negat tllos patére portiis (Liv. xxviii. 43), Ze says that no forts are open. 





1 The accusative with the infinitive is found with about 80 verbs and verbal 
phrases, the most common being: (1) accipi6, affirm6, animadvert6, arbi- 
tror, audi6d, cénse6, cogitd, dicd, disput6, doced, existimd, fama est, 
fateor, intellegé, memini, narrd, negd, put6, recordor, rimor est, 
sentid, spér5, suspicor, traditur, vérum est, vided, vidétur; (2) iubed, 
vets, patior, c6g6, sind; (3) cupid, vol6, nd16, m&15; (4) decet, tuvat, 
aequum est, oportet, opus est, placet, fas est, nefas est, interest. 


§ 330. | Infinitive Clauses. — : 357 


2. Of iubed and veté, and rarely of other verbs of commanding, 
requesting, admonishing, and the like (§ 331. a). Thus, — 


vetuere [bona] reddi, vetuére in publicum redigi (Liv. ii. 4), they for- 
bade the return of the goods (that they be returned), etc. 

Labiénum iugum montis adscendere iubet (B. G.i. 21), Ze orders Labienus 
to ascend the ridge of the hill. 


3. Sometimes of verbs of wishing (§ 331. 6): as, — 


iidicem mé esse non doctorem vold (Or. 117), / wish to be a judge, not a 
teacher. 


» REMARK.— The Infinitive with Subject-Accusative, though not strictly a Clause, 
is equivalent to one, and may be treated as such. 


a. If the main verb is changed to the Passive, either — 

1. The subject of the infinitive (like other objects of active verbs) 
becomes zomznative, and the infinitive is retained (Personal Construc- 
tion): as, — 

mons dicitur ab hostibus teneri, the mountain is said to be held by the 

enemy. 


Labienus iugum montis adscendere iubetur, Zadienus ts ordered to ascend 
the ridge of the hill. ? 


2. The passive is used zzPersonally, and the clause retained as its 
subject (Jmpersonal Construction) : — 


dicitur montem ab hostibus teneri, z¢ zs said that the mountain is held by 
the enemy. 

nuntiatur piratarum naves esse in portu (Verr. v. 87), it zs told that the 
ships of the pirates are in port. 


b. 1. Verbs of saying, thinking, etc., may take in the Passive either 
the Personal or the Impersonal construction. But the Personal con- 
struction is more common and is regularly used in the tenses of in- 
complete action. Thus, — 


beaté vixisse videor (Lelius 15), / seem to have lived happily. 

Epaminondas fidibus praeclare cecinisse dicitur (Tuscul. i. 4), Epaminon- 
das is said to have played excellently on the lyre. 

multi idem facturi esse dicuntur (Fam. xvi. 12), many are satd to be about 
to do the same thing. [Active: dicunt multds factiirés (esse).] 

primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 40), they jirst are related 
to have joined words with a certain skill. 

putatur is esse cOnstitutus ex marmore (Archias 22), he is thought to have 
been set up in marble. 

Bibulus audiébatur esse in Syria (Att. v. 18), ¢¢ was heard that Bibu- 
lus was in Syria (Bibulus was heard, etc.). [Direct: Bibulus est.] 

céterae Illyrici legionés secuturae sperabantur (Tac. Hist. ii. 74), the rest 
of the legions of Illyricum were expected to follow. 


358 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§ 330. 


videmur enim quieturi fuisse nisi essemus lacessiti (De O. ii. 230), 7¢ seems 
that we should have kept quiet if we had not been molested (we seem, 
etc.). [Direct: quiévissémus .. . nisi essémus lacessiti. ] 


2, Iubed and vetd always take the personal construction of the 
passive : as, — 
jussus es renuntiari consul (Phil. ii. 79), you were under orders to be 
declared consul. 
Nolani muros portasque adire vetiti sunt (Liv. xxiii. 16), he men of Nola 
were forbidden to go to visit the walls and gates. 


c. In the compound tenses of verbs of saying, etc., the imper- 
sonal construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regu- 
lar: as, — 

traditum est etiam Homerum caecum fuisse (Tus. v. 114), 7¢ 7s a tradition, 

too, that Homer was blind. 

ubi tyrannus est, ibi nOn vitidsam, sed dicendum est plané nullam esse 

rempublicam (Rep. iii. 43), where there is a tyrant, it must be said, 
not that the Commonwealth ts evil, but that it does not exist at all, 


ad. The poets and later writers extend the personal use of the passive 
to verbs which are not properly verda sentiendi, etc.: as, — 


colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6, 61), 7¢ 7s gathered [from this 
memorial] ¢hat / pleased my mistress. 


é. The Infinitive with a subject may depend on any word implying 
speech or thought, though not strictly a verb of saying, etc. (see § 336, 
note 2). 

J. Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, Swearing, 
and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, 
contrary to the English idiom: as, — 

minatur sésé abire (Plaut. Asin. 604), Ae threatens to go away. [Direct: 

abed, J am going away.) 
ex quibus sperant sé maximum fructum esse captiros (Lel. 79), from 
which they hope to gain the utmost advantage. [Direct: capiémus. } 

quem inimicissimum futiirum esse promitto ac sponded (Mur. go), who 
I promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies. [Direct: 
erit. sis 


to wear down ated [ Direct : dabilitabs. } 


NOTE.— These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary Infinitive 
(§ 272). So regularly in early Latin (except spér6). Thus, — 


pollicentur obsidés dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise to give hostages. 


[Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs]. 


promisi délium vini dare (Plaut. Cistel. 542), 7 promised to give a jar ii 


of wine. 


. 
Patt 
ey ha 


os 


5 i 


§ 331.] Substantive Clauses of Purpose. 359 


2. Clauses of Purpose. 


NOTE. — Clauses of Purpose may be used substantively! (z) as the Object of 
verbs of admonishing, etc. (§ 331) ; (2) as the Subject of these same verbs in the pas- 
sive (§ 331. 2), as well as of certain impersonal verbs and verbal phrases (§ 311. 2); 
(3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate nominative, etc. 


331. Substantive Clauses of Purpose with ut (negative 
né) are used as the object of all verbs denoting an action 


directed toward the future. 
Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, decree, 
determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and wish. Thus, — 
monet ut omnés suspiciones vitet (id. 20), e warns him to avoid all 
: suspicion. 
te rogo atque ord ut eum iuvés (Fam. xiii. 66), 7 deg and pray you to 
aid him. 
his ut conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search. 
persuadet Castico ut regnum occuparet (B. G. i. 3), Ze persuades Casticus 
to usurp royal power. 
a. Tubes, order, and vet, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject 
Accusative (§ 330. B. 2): as,— 
liberos ad sé addiici itssit (B. G. ii. 5), Ze ordered the children to be brought 
to him. 
ab opere légatos discédere vetuerat (B. G. i. 20), he had forbidden the 
lieutenants to leave the work. 
NOTE 1.—Some other verbs of commanding, etc., occasionally take the Infini- 
tive: as,— : 
haec facere imperatum est, orders were given to do this. 
res monet cavere (Sall. Cat. 52), she occasion warns us to be on our guard. 
b. Verbs of wishing take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive. 
The Infinitive is more common when the subject remains the same; 
the Subjunctive, when it changes. Thus, — 
1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of main verb: 
quos non tam ulcisci studeo quam sanare (Cat.ii.17), whom I do not 
care so much to punish as to cure. 
2. Subject of dependent verb different from that of main verb: 
cupio ut impetret (Plaut. Capt. 102), 7 wish he may get it. 
mallem Cerberum metuerés (Tus.i.12), J would rather you feared 
Cerberus. 





1 See p. 362, foot-note 1. 

2Such Verbs or verbal phrases are id ag6, ad id veni6, caved (n6), 
cénse6, c6g6, concédG, cobnstitus, ctir6, décernd, 6dicsd, flagité, 
hortor, imper6, inst6, mand6, metud (né), moned, negdtium dd, 
operam d6, 6rd, persuaded, petd, postuld, praecipis, precor, pré- 
ninti6, quaerd, rogsé, scisc6, timed, vereor (né), vided, vols. 


sat 


360 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§ 331 


Nore. — Vol6 and cupi6, however, tend to take the Accusative and Infinitive 
tather than the Subjunctive, even when the subject changes. When it remains the 
same, the subject-accusative is rarely found. Thus, — 


vim volumus exstingui (Sestius 92), we wish violence to be put down. 

té tua frui virtute cupimus (Brutus 331), we wish you to reap the fruits 
of your virtue. 

iidicem mé esse, ndn doctérem vold (Orat. 117), J wish to be a judge, 
not a teacher. 

cupio mé esse clementem (Cat. i. 4), J desire to be merciful. [But regu- 
larly, cupid esse cléméns (see § 271. a). ] 

¢. Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive. 


Patior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; so often 
sind. Thus, — 


permisit ut partes faceret (De O. ii. 366), permitted him to make divisions. 

concedant ut boni viri fuerint (Lzlius 18), /et them allow them to have 
been good men. 

nullo sé implicari negotid passus est (Lig. 3), he suffered himself to be 
entangled in no business. 

vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be 
imported. 


d. Verbs of aA decreeing, resolving, bargaining, take either 
the Subjunctive or the Infinitive: as, — 


constituerant ut L. Bestia quererétur (Sall. Cat. 43), they had determined 


that Lucius Bestia should complain. 
proelid supersedére statuit (B. G. ii. 8), Le determined to refuse battle. 
dé bonis regis quae reddi cénsuerant (Liv. ii. 5), about the hing’s goods, 
which they had decreed should be restored. 
décernit ut consulés délectum habeant (Sall. Cat. 34), decrees that the con- 
suls shall hold a levy. 
€dictd né quis initissu pugnaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded that none 
should Sight without orders. 
pact ut victorem res sequerétur (id. xxviii. 21), having bargained that 
the property should belong to the victor. 
NOTE 1.— Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their 
construction. For verbs of Jargaining with the Gerundive, see § 294. d. 
NOTE 2.— Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the Second 
Periphrastic conjugation: as, — 
Régulus captivos reddendés [esse] non cénsuit (Off. i. 39), Regulus voted 
that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his for- 
mal opinion: captivi noén reddendi sunt. ] 


e. 1. Verbs of caution and effort take the Subjunctive with ut. But _ 


conor, “ry, commonly takes the complementary Infinitive. Thus, — 


cara ut quam primum intellegam (Fam. xiii. 10), /e¢ me know as soon as 
possible (take care that i may understand). 


i. 


§ 331.) Substantive Clauses of Purpose. 361 


dant operam ut habeant (Sall. Cat. 41), chey take pains to have (he their 
attention that, etc.). 

impellere ut Caesar néminarétur (id. 49), to induce them to name Casar 
(that Cesar ‘should be named). 

si transire conarentur (B. G. i. 8), ¢f they should try to cross. 


Norte 1.— CGnor si also occurs (as B. G. i. 8; cf. miror si, etc., § 333. 
6, Rem.). 
NOTE 2. — Ut n6 occurs occasionally with verbs of caution and effort (cf. 
§ 317): as, — 
cura et provide ut néquid ei désit (Att. ii. 3), cake care and see that he lacks 
nothing. 


2. Verbs denoting an effort to hinder take either (rt) a Subjunctive 
clause with qu6minus or né, or (2) the Infinitive: as, — 


non deterret sapientem mors quominus...(Tusc. i. g1), death does not 
prevent the wise man from, etc. 

né facerem impedivit (De Fat. 1), prevented me from doing. 

obstitisti né transire copiae possent (Verr. v. 5), you opposed the passage 
of the troops (opposed lest the troops should cross), 

prohibet aecédere (Czc. 46), prevents him from approaching (to approach). 


NOTE. — For verbs of hindering negatived (not to hinder), see § 332. g- 


j. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive,! with né affirmative and 
né n6n or ut negative. Thus, — 


timed né Verres fécerit (Verr. v. 3), 7 fear that Verres has done, ete. 

‘né animum offenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared that he should 
hurt the feelings, etc. 

orator metuo né languéscat senectiite (Cat. Major 28), J fear the orator 
grows feeble from old age. 

vereor ut tibi possim concédere (De O. i. 35), 7 fear [that] I cannot 
grant you. 

haud sane periculum est né non mortem optandam putet (Tus. v. 118), 
there is no danger that he will not think death desirable. 


NoTE.—In this use n6 is commonly to be translated by ¢hat or Zest, ut and 
né nOn by ¢hat not. 


REMARK.— The particle ut is often omitted with some verbs of the above 
classes. So generally after verbs of wishing, necessity, permission; after dic, 
fac, and frequently in Indirect Discourse after verbs of commanding and the 
like, Thus, — 


volo amés (Att. ii. 10), 7 wish you to love, etc. 
mé ipsum amés oportet (Fin. ii. 85), you ought to love me. 





1 With verbs of Fearing the subjunctive with né6 is hortatory in origin : timed né 

accidat is literally / fear, let it not happen. ‘The subjunctive with ut may have 

_been either hortatory or deliberative, —/ fear, let it happen, or I fear; how may 
it happen? =I hope it will happen, but I fear it will not. 


362 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§ 331. 


fac diligas (Att. iii.), do dove. 

dic exeat, Ze// him to go out. 

Mnésthea vocat, classem aptent socii (/En. iv. 289), ke calls Mnestheus 
[and orders that] 42s comrades should make ready the fleet (cf. 
§ 339)- 


NOTE.— Similarly né is omitted after cave in Prohibitions (cf. § 269. a). 


g. With any verbs of the above classes the poets may use the Infini- 
tive instead of an object clause: as, — 


hortamur fari (/En. ii. 74), we urge [him] Zo speak. 
né quaere docéri (id. vi. 614), seek not to be told. 
temptat praevertere (id. i. 721), ske attempts to-turn, etc. 


hk. A Substantive clause of Purpose used as the object of a verb be- 
comes the subject when that verb is put in the Passive. Thus, — 


imperatum est ut iter facerent, 7¢ was ordered that they should march. 

permissum est ut irent, permission was given that they should go. 

mihi persuadetur ut exeam, J am persuaded to go out (it is persuaded to 
me). 


z. The impersonals licet and oportet take as subject either a 
Substantive clause of Purpose, or an Infinitive with or without subject- 
accusative. Thus, — 


licet mé ire, 7¢ is allowed me to go. 
queramur licet (Cec. 41), we are allowed to complain, 
sint enim oportet (Tus. i. 12), they must exist. 


NOTE 1.— The Subjunctive with oportet omits ut, except in later writers 
(see § 331. 4 Rem.). 

NOTE 2.— Licet may take the Subjunctive, usually without ut, to denote con- 
cession (see § 313. 4). 

NOTE 3.—Licet may take (1) the Subjunctive; (2) the Simple Infinitive; 
(3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; or (4) the Dative and the Infinitive. 
Thus, / may go is licet eam, licet ire, licet mé ire, or licet mihi ire, 


3. Clauses of Result. 


NOTE.— Clauses of Result may be used substantively, (1) as the object of 
facis, etc. (§ 332) ; (2) as the subject of these same verbs in the passive, as well 
as of-other verbs and verbal phrases (§ 332. a2, d@); (3) in apposition with another 
substantive, or as predicate nominative, etc. (see § 332. /). 





1 In all these cases the clause is not strictly subject or object. The main verb 


originally conveyed a meaning complete in itself, and the result clause was merely — 


appended. This is seen by the frequent use of ita and the like with the main verb 
(ita accidit ut, etc.). In like manner purpose clauses are only apparently subject 
or object of the verb with which they are connected. 


—_— 


§ — Substantive Clauses of Result. eG 


3 Substantive Clauses of Result with ut (negative 
ut nén) are used as the object of verbs dencene the 
accomplishment of an effort. : 


Such are especially faci6 and its compounds (effici6, c6nfici6, etc.). 
Thus, — 
efficiam ut intellegatis (Cluent. 7), J will make you understand (lit. effect 
that you, etc.). [So, faciam ut intellegatis (id. 9).] 
commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), made tt possible that 
supplies could be brought. 
quae libertas ut laetior esset regis superbia fecerat (Liv. ii. 1), the arro- 
gance of the last king had made this liberty more welcome. 
évincunt instando ut litterae darentur (id. 4), dy insisting they gain their 
point, — that letters should be sent. [Here évincunt = efficiunt.] 
a. Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the Subject of the fol- 
lowing : — 
1. Of passive verbs denoting the ‘scieesiiue of an effort: as,— 
impetratum est ut in senatu recitarentur (litterae) (B. C. i. 1), they suc- 
ceeded in having the letter read in the senate (it was brought about 
that, etc.). 
2. Of Impersonals meaning zt happens, it remains, it follows, it és 
necessary, it is added,* and the like: as, — 
accidit ut esset lina plena (B. G. iv. 29), i¢ happened to be full moon (it 
happened that it was, etc.). [Here ut esset is subject of accidit.] 
reliquum est quarta virtiis ut sit ipsa frigalitas (Tus. D. iii. 17), # 
remains that the fourth virtue is thrift. [So also restat.] 
sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 81), the next thing is to show (it follows 
that I should show). 
accedit ut conturber (Deiot. 2), desides this [ am troubled (it is added 
that, etc.). 
3. Of est in the sense of 7 zs the fact that, etc. (mostly poetic): as, 


est ut viro vir latius 6rdinet arbusta (Hor. Od. iii. 1. 9), i¢ 2s the fact that 
one man plants his vineyards in wider rows than another. 


6. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam, 
after a comparative (but see § 336. c, note 2): as, — : 


perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. ii. 52), Ze endured ali 
rather than betray, etc. 





1 Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result as subject or object are 
accédit, accidit, additur, altera est rés, committ6, cOnsequor, con- 
tingit, efficid, Svenit, faci, fit, fieri potest, fore, impetré, integrum 
est, mds est, mtinus est, necesse est, prope est, réctum est, relin- 
quitur, reliquum est, restat, tanti est, tantum abest, and a few others, 

2 See the impersonals in the list above, 


364 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§ 332. 


c. A result clause, with or without ut, is often used elliptically, in 
exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced by the inter- 
rogative -ne. Thus, — 


quamquam quid loquor? té ut illa res frangat (Cat. i.22), vet why do 1 
speak ? [the idea] that anything should bend you! 

egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), what, [ interrupt you? 

ego té videre noluerim (Q, Fr. i. 3), / unwilling to see you? 


REMARK, — The Infinitive, in exclamations (§ 274), usually refers to something 
actually occurring; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated, 


d. The phrase tantum abest, z¢ zs so far [from being the case], 
regularly takes two clauses of result with ut: one is substantive, the 
subject of abest; the other is adverbial, correlative with tantum. 
Thus, — 


tantum abest ut nostra mirémur, ut usque eo difficilés ac morosi simus, ut 
nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenés (Or.104), so far from admir- 
ing my own works, lam difficult and captious to that degree, that not 
Demosthenes himself satisfies me. (Here the first ut-clause is the sub- 
ject of abest (§ 332. 2); the second, a result clause, after tantum 
(§ 319); and the third, after usque e6. ] 


ee ee ee ae 


é. The expressions facere ut, committere ut with the subjunctive, 
often form a periphrasis for the simple verb: as, — ; 


invitus féci ut Flaminium € senatu éicerem (Cat. Maj. 42), 2¢ was with =~ 
reluctance that I expelled Flaminius from the senate, i: 


NOTE.— With this may be compared fore ut for the future infinitive (§ 288.7). 


jf. Rarely, a thought or an zdea is considered as a result, and is 
expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and in- 
finitive (§ 336.1). Inthis casea demonstrative usually precedes: as, — 


praeclarum illud est, ut eds . . . amémus (Tusc. iii. 73), skis zs a noble 
thing, that we should love, etc. 

vérisimile non est ut ille anteponeret (Verres iv. 11), 2¢ 7s not Likely that 
he preferred. 


a g. A Relative clause of Result with quin is used after verbs or other 
ressions of Aindering and the like when these are negatived. Thus, 


facere nOn possum quin... (Att. xii. 27), 7 cannot avoid, etc. 
_ nihil praetermisi quin scribam ... (Q.F. iii. 3), 7Aave left nothing undone 


to write. 
ut nulla re impedirer quin (Att. iv. 2), shat I might be hindered by nothing | 
rom, etc. 


non humana ulla neque divina obstant quin (Sall. Ep. Mith. 17), x 
human or divine laws prevent, but that, etc. 


ey 
3, 
is >t 
=a 
. 
ey, = 





§ 332, | Substantive Clauses of Result. 365 


NOTE 1.— The negative may be expressed (as in the examples above) or merely 
implied (as in quis impedit quin eam, who (i.e. nobody) hinders me from 
oing ?). 
REMARK.— This usage is found especially with the phrase n6n dubit6, / do 
not doubt, and similar expressions: as, — 


non dubitabat quin ei créderémus (Att. vi. 2), he did not doubt that we 
believed him. 

illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20), do not doubt that 
I will do all. 

quis ignorat quin (Flacc. 64), who is ignorant that, etc.? 

neque ambigitur quin Brutus pessimo publicod id factiirus fuerit si prio- 
rum regum alicui regnum extorsisset (Liv. ii. 1), zor ts there any ques- 
tion that Brutus, if he had wrested the kingdom from any one of the 
former kings, would have done it with the worst results to the state. 
[Direct statement: fécisset. ] 


NOTE 2.— NOn dubit6, in the sense of J do not hesitate, commonly takes the 
Infinitive, but sometimes Quin with the subjunctive. Thus, — 


nec dubitare illum appellare sapientem (Leelius 1), and not to hesitate to 
call him a sage. 

dubitandum non existimavit quin proficiscerétur (B. G. ii. 2), Ze did not 
think he ought to hesitate to set out. 


hk. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of 
saying or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and the like. These 
take as their object either a Substantive clause of Purpose or Result 
or an Infinitive with subject acme: according to the sense. 
Thus, — . 


sequitur ilico esse causas immutabiles (Fat. 28), z¢ -folloads directly that 
there are unalterable causes. [Result clause, the regular construction 
with sequor when used of a logical sequence. ] 

laudem sapientiae statuo esse maximam (Div. v. 13), J hold that the glory 
of wisdom is the greatest. 

statuunt ut decem milia hominum mittantur (B. G. vii. 21), hey resolve 
that 10,000 men shall be sent. [Purpose clause, cf. § 331. @.] 

res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8), the thing itself warned that tt 

was time. [Cf. monére ut, warn to do something. | 

fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. i. 75), suppose that I am persuaded of 
that. (Cf. facere ut, accomplish that. | 

hoc volunt persuadére, non interire animos (B. G. vi. 13), they wish to 
convince that souls do not perish. 

huic persuadet uti ad hostes transeat (B. G. iii. 18), persuades him to 
pass over to the enemy. 


Norte. — The infinitive with subject accusative in this construcfion is Indirect 
Discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found 
with these verbs instead of a subjunctive clause. 


366 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§ 333, 


4. Indicative with Quod. 


3338. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of 
quod causal with the Indicative. 

The clause in the Indicative with quod is used when 
the statement is regarded as a fact; as, — 


alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium cénferunt (Off. 
i. 19),2¢ ¢s another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here ut 
conferant could be used, meaning “hat some should bestow; or the 
accusative and infinitive, meaning 40 destow (abstractly); quod makes 
it a fact that men do bestow, etc. ] 

inter inanimum et animal hoc maximeé interest, quod animal agit aliquid 
(Ac. ii. 37), chis ts the chief difference, etc., that an animal aims at 
something. 

quod rediit nobis mirabile videtur (Of. iii.111), that he (Regulus) returned 
seems wonderful to us. 

vetus illud Catdnis admodum scitum est, qui mirari se aiébat quod n6én 
ridéret haruspex haruspicem cum vidisset (Div. ii. 51), *#s an old 
and shrewd saying of Cato, that he wondered a soothsayer did not laugh 
when he looked another in the face, [Here ridéret is in the subjunc- 
tive as being a subordinate clause of indirect discourse: see § 336.] 


NOTE. — Like other substantive clauses, the clause with quod may be used 
as subject, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or 
in apposition with the subject. 


a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod sometimes appears 
as an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English WHEREAS 
(cf. § 326. a): as, — | 
quod dé dom6 scribis (Fam. xiv. 2), as to what you write of the house. 
quod mihi dé nostrd statu gratularis, minimée miramur té tuis praeclaris 
operibus laetari (Att. i. 5), as 40 your congratulating me on our con- 
dition, no wonder you are pleased with your own noble works. 


b. Verbs of feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod, 
quia (Causal), or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : 
as, — | 

quod scribis ... gauded (Q. F. iii. 1), 7 am glad that you write. 

facio libenter quod eam non possum praeterire (Leg. i. 63), 7 am glad that 

J cannot pass tt by. — 

quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rosc. A. 136), J greatly rejoice 

that this is finished? 

REMARK.— Miror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause 


with sil This is apparently substantive, but really protasis (cf. § 331. ¢. 1. note 1). 
Thus, — 





1 Cf. the Greek Oauud(w ei, 


§§ 333, 334.] Indirect Questions. 367 


miror si quemquam amicum habére potuit (Lzl. 54), 7 wonder if he could 
ever have a friend, (Originally, Jf this is so, [ wonder at it.] 


5. Indirect Questions. 


NOTE.—An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause which is introduced 
by an Interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and which is itself the subject or 
object of a verb, or depends on any expression implying uncertainty or doubt. In 
grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distinguished from ixferrogative 
(see the third example below). 


334. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Sub- 
junctive: as, — 


quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i.10), 7 will explain what J think. 
[Direct: quid sentid?] 

id possetne fieri consuluit (id. 32),4¢ consulted whether it could be done. 
[Direct: potestne?] 

quam sis audax omnés intellegere potuérunt (Rosc. Am. 87), al? could 
understand how bold you are. (Direct: quam es audax!] 

doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 29), é¢ és of no account 
whether I suffer or not. [Double question. ] 

rogat mé quid sentiam, Ze asks me what J think. [Cf. rogat mé senten- 
tiam, he asks me my opinion. ] 

hoc dubium est, uter nostrum sit verecundior (Academ. ii. 126), ¢his zs 
doubtful, which of us two is the more modest. 

incerti quatenus Volero exercéret victoriam (Liv. ii. 55), uacertain how 
far Volero would push victory. [As if, dubitantés quatenus, etc.] 

NoTE,—An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb (as in the fourth 

example), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the fifth), 

an appositive (as in the sixth). 


The use of tenses in Indirect Question is illustrated by 
the following examples : — 


dico quid faciam, J ¢el’ you what [ am doing. 

dicd quid facturus sim, J ée// you what J will do, 

dico quid fécerim, J ¢e/? you what I did (have done, was doing, had done). 
dixi quid facerem, / told you what I was doing. 

dixi quid fécissem, J told you what [ had done. 

dixi quid facturus essem, / told you what I would do (was going to do). 
dixi quid facturus fuerim, J told you what I would have done. 


a. Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunctive of 
the First Periphrastic conjugation: as, — 
prospicio qui concursts futuri sint (Div. in Cec.), 7 foresee what throngs 
there will be [Direct : qui erunt?] 


quid sit futurum cras, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9), forbear to ask what 
will be on the morrow. (Direct: quid erit or futiirum est?) 


368 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§ 334. 


NOTE, — This periphrastic future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused 
by using the present subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses. 


5. The Deliberative Subjunctive (see § 268 and examples) remains 
unchanged in an Indirect Question, except sometimes in tense: as,— 


{quaeritur] utrum Carthago diruadtur, ar Carthaginiensibus reddatur 
(De Inv. i. 17), [the question is] shad Carthage be destroyed, or re- 
stored to the Carthaginians. 

nec quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut spéret aut timeat (Liv. xxii. 
7), nor ts any one well assured what he shall hope or fear, [Here the 
future participle with sit could not be used.] 

incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), siuce i¢ was doubtf{u. 
(abl. abs.) what they should seck or shun. 


¢. In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an Indirect Ques- 
tion is often attracted into the main clause as object (accusatzve of 
anticipation): as,— 

nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10), you know how slow 

Marcellus is. [For ndsti quam tardus sit Marcellus. Cf. 7 know 
thee who thou art.) 

cx. potestne igitur earum rérum quaré futurae sint ulla esse praesensio (Div. 

ii.15),caz there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things, why they 
will occur? [A similar use of the objective genitive.] 

REMARK.— In some cases the Odject of anticipation becomes Subject by a 
change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative construction 
is the result: as, — 

quidam saepe in parva peciinia perspiciuntur quam sint leves (Lel. 63), z¢ 

is often seen, in a trifling matter of money, how unprincipled some 
people are (some people are often seen through, how unprincipled they 
are). 

quemadmodum Pompéium oppugnarent a mé indicati sunt (Leg. Ag. i. 5), 

it has been shown by mein what way they attacked Pompey (they have 
been shown by me, how they attacked). 

@. Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin and in 
poetry: as,-— 

non reputat quid labdris est (Plaut. Am, 172), Ze does not consider what @ 

task it is. 

vineam quod in agro cOnseri oportet sic observaté (Cato R. R. 6), im 

what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus. 

é. A few interrogative expressions are used parenthetically in an 
indefinite sense and do not take a subjunctive. Such are— 

nesciO quis (and kindred forms), 7 know not who, somebody or other, etc. 

mirum (nimirum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how). 

mirum quantum, ¢remendously (marvellous how much), 

immane quantum, monstrously (monstrous how much). 

sane quam, immensely. valde quam, enormously. 














§ 334.| Indirect Discourse. 369 


Examples are: — 

gui istam nescid quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tus. iii. 12), who 
greatly extol that freedom from pain, whatever that is. 

mirum quantum profuit (Liv. ii. 1), 2¢ helped prodigiously. 

ita fato nescid qué contigisse arbitror (Fam. xv. 13), / chink it happened 
so by some fatality or other. 

nam suds valdé quam paucos habet (Fam. xi. 13), jor ke has uncommonly 
few of his own. 

sané quam sum gavisus a. »» I was immensely glad. 

vino et lucernis Médus acinacés immane quantum discrepat (Hor. Od. i. 27. 
5), 2s monstrously at variance. 


jf. An indirect question is occasionally introduced by si in the stnse 
' of whether (like if in English, cf § 333. 6. Rem.): as, — 


circumfunduntur hostes si quem aditum reperire possent (B. G. vi. 37), 
the enemy pour round {to see] tf they can find entrance. 
visam si domi est (Ter. Heaut. 118), Jad? go see if he ts at home. 


Note.— This is strictly a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis is thought of, and 
the clause is virtually an Indirect Question, 


g. Forsit, forsitan, forsan, fortasse, fortasse an, Zerhaps, are 
often followed by the Subjunctive: as, — - 


forsitan quaeratis qui iste terror sit (Rosc. Am. 2), you may perhaps in- 
quire what this alarm és. 
NoTE.— The Subjunctive Clause in this case was originally an Indirect Ques- 
tion. Thus, zt would be a chance whether, etc. Fortasse is also followed by the 
Infinitive with Subject Accusative in Plautus. 


{ll.—INDIRECT DISCOURSE, 


NOTE. — The use of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse 
(6ratid obfiqua) is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin 
and Greek only, and perhaps separately in each of them, It is wholly wanting in 
Sanskrit and Zend, but some forms like it have grown up in English and German, 

The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other 
person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, 
the verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well 
as all hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. The ersonz of the verb is 
mecessarily conformed ‘to the new relation of persons. 

The construction of the Indirect Discourse, however, is not limited to reports 
of the language of some person other than the speaker; it may ‘be used to express 
what any one—whether the speaker or some one else — says, thinks, or perceives, 
whenever that which is said, thoughi, or perceived is capable of being expressed in 
tthe form of a complete sentence. For anything that can be sad, etc.,.can also de 
reported indirectly as well as directly. 

The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use.as 
8 case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying, etc., 
and its object together, “This object in time came to be regarded as, and in fact 


370 3 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§§ 335, 336. 


to all intents became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found in 
Sanskrit, which, though it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect 
predication after verbs of saying and the like, by means of a predicative apposition, 
in such expressions as, “ The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft 
of her senses.” 

The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was 
afterwards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses; and in Latin it 
became acommon construction, and could be used to report whole speeches, etc., 
which in other languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of 
reporting speeches in English, where only the person and tense are changed, as 
is also occasionally the case in Sanskrit.) 

The use of the Subjunctive in dependent clauses in Indirect Discourse probably 
came from regarding the statements contained in them as not adsolutely true, but 
as conditioned upon the trustworthiness of the original speaker; that is, as Apodosis 
with an implied Protasis (tf we may believe the speaker, or the like). Sothe French 
conditional is often equivalent to “itissaid”: as, ainsi </ aurait a peu prés doudleé, 
“it is said to have nearly doubled,” lit. “would have doubled,” i.e. if we should 
believe the report. Cf. in German, Zr sol/ krank sein,“ he is said to be sick,” lit. 
“he ought to be sick, unless the story is false.” 

The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse 
is simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense 
(if necessary), as in the reporter’s style, and in Sanskrit. 


335. A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the 
original speaker or writer. 

An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker 
or writer to the construction of the sentence in which they 
are quoted. 

REMARK.— The term INDIRECT DISCOURSE (dratid od/igua) is used in two 
senses. In the wider sense it includes all clauses—of whatever kind—which 
express the words or thought of any person indirectly; that is, ina form different 
from that in which the person said the words or conceived the thought. In the 
narrower sense the term Indirect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which 
some complete proposition is cited in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may 


be extended to a narrative or an address of any length, as in the speeches reported 
by Ceesar and Livy. In this book the term is used in the restricted sense. 


I. FORMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 


836. 1. Verbs and other expressions of knowing, think- 
ing, telling, and perceiving,’ govern the Indirect Discourse. 





1Such are: (1) snowing, scid, cOgndsc6, compertum habed, etc.; 
(2) thinking, putd, existim6, arbitror, etc.; (3) ‘e//ing, dicd, ntintid, 
refer6, polliceor, pr6mitt6, certidrem faci6, etc.; (4) perceiving, sen- 
tid, comperi6, vided, audi6, etc. So in general any word that denotes 
thought or mental and visual perception or their expression may govern the 
Indirect Discourse. 


§ 336.] Lnudirect Discourse: Subject Accusative. 371 


2. In the Indirect Discourse the mazu clause of a De- 
claratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject 
Accusative. All Subordinate clauses take the Subjunc- 
tive. Thus, — 


spero mé liberatum [esse] dé met (Tusc. ii. 67), 7 trust I have been 
freed from fear. 

[dicit] esse nonnillds quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), 
he says there are some, whose influence most prevails. [In direct dis- 
course: sunt nonnilli... valet. ] 

nisi iiirasset, scelus sé factirum [esse] arbitrabatur (Ver.ii. 1.123), Ze 
thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take the oath. (Direct: 
nisi iiraverd, faciam. | 

Stdici negant quidquam [esse] bonum, nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. ii. 
68), the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right. [The verb 
nego is used in preference to dicd with a negative. ] 


NOTE 1.— In the statement of all speech or thought, the Romans tended to use 
the Indirect Discourse, etc., with verbs of the classes mentioned, but: inquam, 
said J (etc.), is appropriated to the Direct Discourse except in poetry. 

NOTE 2.— The verb of saying, etc., is often not expressed, but implied in some 
word or in the general drift of the sentence: as, — 

consulis alterius nOmen invisum civitati fuit: nimium Tarquinids régnd 
adsuésse; initium a Prisco factum; régnasse dein Ser. Tullium, etc. 
(Liv. ii. 2), the name of the other consul was hateful to the state; the 
Tarquins (they thought) had become too much accustomed to royal 
power, etc. [Here invisum implies a thought, and this thought is 
added in the Indirect Discourse. ] 

Grantés ut urbibus saltem—iam enim agrés déplératés esse — opem 
senatus ferret (Liv. xvi. 6), praying that the senate would.at least bring 
aid to the cities —for the fields [they said] were already given up as 
dost. 

NOTE 3.— Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, and 

the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse (see § 330. 4 and 
note), 


1. Subject Accusative. 


a. 1. The Subject of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse must regu- 
larly be expressed, even if it is wanting in the direct: as, — 

Grator sum, J am an orator ; dicit sé esse Oratorem, he says he is an orator. 

NOTE. — But the subject is often omitted, if easily understood: as,— 

igndscere imprudentiae dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardoned their 
rashness. 

rogavi pervénissentne Agrigentum: dixit pervénisse (Verr. iv. 27), 7 
asked whether they (the curtains) had come to Agrigentum ; he an- 
swered that they had. 


3 72 Syntax Z Dependent Constructions. [$ 336. 


REMARK. —After a relative, or Quam (¢san), if the verb would be the same 
as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into 
the accusative; as,— 


té suspicor eisdem rébus quibus mé6ipsum commoveri (Cat. Maj. 1), 7 sus- 
pect that you are disturbed by the same things as I. 


2. When the verb of saying, etc., becomes Jassive, the construction 
may be either Personal or Impersonal. 


NOTE 1.— For rules in regard to the choice between these constructions, and 
for examples, see § 330. a-d, 

NOTE 2.—An Indirect Narrative begun in the personal construction may be 
continued with the Infinitive and Accusative. 


2. Subordinate Clauses. 


6. A subordinate clause merely explanatory or containing statements 
which are regarded as true independently of the quotation, takes the 
Indicative: as, — 

quis neget haec omnia quae vidémus dedrum potestate administrari (Cat. 

iii. 21), whocan deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power 
of the gods ? 

culius ingenio putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrari(Arch. 20), dy whose 

genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could be celebrated. 
[Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not explanatory, is 
felt to be true without regard to the quotation: quae gessisset would 
mean, what Marius claimed to have done.] 


NOTE. — It often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he shall 
use the Indicative or Subjunctive in such clauses (cf. §§ 340-342). 


¢. Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a demon- 
strative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate, and hence 
take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (see § 180. f) : 
as;—= 
Marcellus requisivisse dicitur Archimédem illum, quem cum audisset inter- 
fectum permoleste tulisse (Ver. iv. 131), Marcellus is said to have 
sought for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to have 
been greaily distressed. 
fnumquemque nostrum cénsent philosophi mundi esse partem, ex qué 
[= et ex ed] illud natura cdnsequi (Fin. iii. 64), the philosophers say 
that each one of us is a part of the universe, from which this naturally 
Sollows. 


NOTE 1.— Really subordinate clauses occasionally take this construction; as, — 


quemadmodum si non dedatur obses pro ruptd sé foedus habitirum, sic 
deditam inviolatam ad suds remisstrum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in 
case the hostage is not given up he shall consider the treaty as broken, so 
if given up he will return her unharmed to her friends, 


§ 336. ] Tenses in Indirect Discourse. 373 


NOTE 2,— The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a comparative 
with quam: as,~ 

addit sé prius occisum iri ab ed quam mé violatum iri (Att. ii. 20), Ze 

adds that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured, 

NOTE 3.—The Subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see 
9 332. 4). 

ad. A subordinate clause in the Indirect Discourse occasionally takes 
the Indicative when the fact is emphasized: as, — 


factum eius hostis periculum ...cum, Cimbris et Teutonis. . . pulsis, non 
minorem laudem exercitus quam ipse imperator meritus vidébatur 
(B. G. i. 40), that a trial of this enemy had been made when, etc., 
the army seemed, etc. 


3. Tenses of the Infinitive. 

836. A. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future In- 
finitive is used in Indirect Discourse, according as the 
time indicated is present, past, or future with reference to 
the verb of saying, etc., by which the Indirect Discourse 
is introduced. Thus,— 


cado, Jam falling: a 4 \ se cadere,} ai oy ' he fi, \ falling. 


cadebam, J was falling) ,. . 
cecidi, J felf os sé cecidisse,} he says , he was falling, 
cecideram,// had fallen )O* he said ) fell, had fallen, 


dicit )} \= - - he says he shall fall. 
cadam, 1 shalt fal dixit } Pe Spear Ttol ORME: he said he should falt. 


ceciderod, J shall , dicit fore ut ceciderit [rare], Le says he shall have fallen. 
have fallen } dixit fore ut cecidisset [rare], Le said he should have fallen. 


NOTE 1.—All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect Discourse 
by the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imperfect, the Perfect, or the 
Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct. But sometimes continued or repeated action 
in past time is expressed by the Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for 
the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse, and is often called the Zapexfect 
Infinitive (so regularly after memini): thus,— 

te memini dicere, J remember that you said. (Direct: dicébas.] 


NOTE 2.— For various ways of expressing the Future Infinitive, see $ 147. ¢. 

4. Tenses of the Subjunctive, 
336. B. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Dis- 
course follow the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (§ 286). 


They depend for their sequence on the verb of saying, 
etc., by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced. 


374 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§§ 336, 337 


Thus in the sentence, dixit sé Rémam itirum ut cidnsulem 
vidéret, he said he should go to Rome in order that he might see the 
consul, vidéret follows the sequence of dixit without regard to the 
Future Infinitive, itirum [esse], on which it directly depends. 

NOTE 1.— This rule applies not only to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses 
in indirect discourse, but also to that which stands for the imperative, etc. (see ex- 
amples in § 339), and to that in questions (§ 338). 

NOTE 2.—A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is commonly in 
the Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying, etc., is in a primary tense 
(cf. § 287 2). Thus,— 

Tarquinium dixisse ferunt tum exsulantem sé intelléxisse quOs fidds amicds 
habuisset (Lael. 53), they tell us that Tarquin said that then in his exile 
he had found out what faithful friends he had had. (Here the main 
verb of saying, ferunt, is primary, but the time is carried back by 
dixisse and intelléxisse, and the sequence then becomes secondary.] — 

tantum profécisse videmur ut a Graecis né verborum quidem copia vince- 
rémus (Nat. D.i.8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in 
fulness of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks. 


a. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in dependent 
clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of sayzng, etc., is 
in a secondary tense: as, — 


dicébant . . . totidem Nervids (pollicéri) qui longissimé absint (B. G. ii. 4), 
they satd that the Nervit, who live farthest off, promised as many. 


NOTE 1. — This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all 
time in narration to the time of the speaker (Repraesentatid). In the course of 
a long passage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary, 
sometimes following the Sequence, and sometimes affected by Repracsentatio. 
Examples may be seen in B. G. i. 13, vii. 20, etc. 

NOTE 2.— Certain constructions are never affected by Repfraesentatid. Such 
are the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive with cum temporal, antequam, 
and priusquam. 


5. Conditions in Indirect Discourse. 


337. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are 
expressed as follows :— 


1. The Protasis, being a subordinate clause, is always in the Sub- 
junctive. 

2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative, is 
always in some form of the Infinitive. 

a. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future con- 
ditions (§ 307. 4) becomes the Future Infinitive. Thus there is no dis- 
tinction between more or less vivid future conditions in the Indirect 
Discourse. 


§ 337.] Conditions in Indirect Discourse 375 


Examples of conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are: — 
1. Simple Present Condition (§ 306). 


(dixit) si ipse populo Romano non praescriberet quemadmodum su itire 
Uteretur, non oportére sése a populd Romano in sud ite impediri 
(B. G. i. 36), 2e said that if he did not dictate to the Roman people how . 
they should use their rights, he ought not to be interfered with by the 
Roman people in the exercise of his rights. (Direct: si nin prae- 
scribd ... ndn oportet.] 

praedicavit ...si pace uti velint, iniquum esse, etc. (B. G. i. 44), he as- 
serted that if they wished to enjoy peace, it was unfair, etc. [Direct: 

’ sivolunt...est. Present tense kept by Repracsentatid (§ 336. B. a, 
note 1).] 


2. Simple Past Condition (§ 306). 


non dicam né illud quidem, si maximé in cu'pa fuerit Apollonius, tamen in 
hominem honestissimae civitatis honestissimum tam graviter animad- 
verti causa indicta non oportuisse (Verres v. 20), 7 will mot say 
this either, that, even if Apollonius was greatly in fault, still an honor- 
able man ought not to have been punished so severely, etc. (Direct: 
si fuit . . . ndn oportuit. } 


3- Future Conditions (§ 307). 


Aeduis sé obsidés redditiirum non esse, neque eis... bellum illatiirum, si 
in e4 manérent, quod convenisset, stipendiumque quotannis pende- 
rent: si id non fécissent, longé eis fraternum nomen populi Romani 
abfutirum (B. G. i. 36), 2e said that he would not give up the hostages 
to the dui, but would not make war upon them if they observed the 
agreement, etc. and paid tribute yearly 3 but if they should not do this, 
the name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from aiding 
them. (Direct: reddam...inferam...si manébunt... pendent: 
si non fécerint ... aberit.] 

(dixit) quod si praeterea ném6 sequatur, tamen sé cum sola decima legione 
itiirum (B. G. i. 40), dut if nobody else should follow, still he would go 
with the tenth legion alone. [Direct: si sequétur...ibo. Present 
tense by Repraesentatio. | 

id Datamés ut audivit, sénsit, si in turbam exisset ab homine tam necessa- 
rid se relictum, futiirum [esse] ut céteri consilium sequantur (Nep. 
Dat. 6), if zt should get abroad that he had been abandoned by a man 
so closely connected with him, everybody else would follow his example. 
[Direct: si exierit ... sequentur. ] 

(dixérunt) nisi mé civitate expulissent, obtinere sé non posse licentiam 
cupiditatum suarum (Att. x. 4), they said that unless they drove me out 
of the state, they could not have free dlay for their desires. (Direct: nisi 
(Cicer6nem) expulerimus, obtinére nin poterimus. } 


5. In changing a Condition contrary to fact (§ 308) into the Indirect 
Discourse, the following points require notice. 


376 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. — [§ 337 


1. The Protasis always remains uuchanged in tense. 

2. The Apodosis, if actzve, takes a peculiar infinitive form, made by 
combining the Participle in -iirus with fuisse. 

3. If the verb of the Apodosis is Jasszve or has no supine stem, the 
periphrasis futirum fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must 
be used. 


4. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes Perfect Infinitive. 
Examples are : — 


nec sé superstitem filiae futiirum fuisse, nisi spem ulciscendae mortis eius 
in auxilid commilitsnum habuisset (Liv. iii. 50), ad that he should 
not now be a survivor, etc., unless he had had hope, etc. (Direct: non 
superstes essem, nisi habuissem. ] 

illud Asia cdgitet, nillam a sé neque belli externi neque discordiarum 
domesticarum calamitatem abfutiram fuisse, si hoc imperio non tenere- 
tur (Q. Fr. i. 1, 34), 4e¢ Asia (personified) hink of this, that no disaster 
etc., would not be hers, if she were not held by this government. 
[Direct: abessem, si non tenérer. ] 

quid inimicitiarum creéditis exceptirum fuisse, si Soa abi lacessissem 
(Q. C. vi. 10, 18), what enmities do you think I should have incurred 
if I had wantonly assailed the innocent. [excépissem ... si laces- 
sissem. ] 

invitum se dicere, nec dictirum fuisse, ni caritas rei piiblicae vinceret 
(Liv. ii. 2), that he spoke unwillingly and should not have spoken (at 
all), did not love for the commonwealth prevail? [Direct: nec dixis- 
sem... ni vinceret. ] 

quorum si aetas potuisset esse longinquior, futiirum age ut omnibus 
perfectis artibus hominum vita 6rudirétur (Tuscul. iii. 69), ¢f if 
could have been longer, human existence would have ee embellished by 
every art in its perfection. (Direct: érudita esset.] 


si Cn. Pompeius privatus esset, tamen erat déligendus (Manil. 50), #f P. 
were a private citizen, still he ought to be chosen, would become deéli- 
gendum fuisse. 


NOTE 1.—In Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not 
distinguished in the afodosis from Past, but the gro¢asis may keep them distinct. 

NOTE 2.— The periphrasis futtirum fuisse ut is sometimes used from 
choice when there is no necessity for resorting to it. 

NOTE 3.— Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the dndirect Discourse 
to express the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or five 
examples of this use occur in classic authors: as, — 


Titurius clamabat si Caesar adesset neque Carniités, etc., neque Eburo- 
nes tanta cum contemptione nostra ad castra ventiiros esse (B. G. v. 
29), Titurius cried out that if Casar were present, neither would the 
Carnutes, etc., nor would the Eburones be coming to our camp with 
such contempt. [Direct: si adesset ... venirent.] 


ee 


§§ 338, 339.] if Questions and Commands. 377 


6. Questions in Indirect Discourse, 


338. A Question in the Indirect Digcourse may be 
either in the Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject 
Accusative. 

A real question, asking for an answer, is generally put 
in the Subjunctive; a rhetorical question, asked for effect 
and implying its own answer, in the Infinitive. Thus, — 


quid sibi vellet? cur in suas posséssiOnés veniret (B. G. i. 44), what dia 
he want? why did he come into his territories? [Real question. 
Direct: quid vis? cur venis ?] 
num recentium initriarum memoriam [sé] dépdnere posse (id. i. 14), 
could he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs? [Rhetorical Ques- 
tion. Direct: num possum ?] 
guem signum daturum fugientibus ? quem ausurum Alexandro succedere 
.(Q. C. iii. 5), who will give the signal on the retreat? who will dare 
succeed Alexander ? [Rhetorical. Direct: quis dabit ... audébit. ] 
NOTE 1.— No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infini- 
tive in questions in the Indirect Discourse, Whether the question is to be regarded 
as rhetoricaé or read often depends merely on the writer’s point of view. Thus,— 
utrum partem régni petitiirum esse, an totum éreptirum (Liv. xlv. 19), 
will you ask part of the regal power (he said), or seize the whole? 
quid tandem praetéri faciendum fuisse (id. xxxi. 48), what, pray, ought 
a pretor to have done? 
quid repente factum [esse] ciir, etc. (id. xxxiv. 54), what had suddent; 
happened, that, etc.? 


NOTE 2.— Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as 
Indirect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see § 334). This is true even when 
the verb of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse. 
(he question may be either real or rhetorical. See quaesivit, etc, (Liv. xxxvii. 15). 

NOTE 3.— For the use of tenses, see § 336. B, note 1. 

a. A Deliberative Subjunctive in the Direct Discourse is always 
retained in the Indirect: as,— 

cir aliquos ex suis Amitteret (B.C. i. 72), why (thought he) should he 

lose some of his men? (Direct: cir amittam?] 


7, Commands in Indirect Discourse. 


339. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjune- 
tive in Indirect Discourse: as, — 


reminiscerétur veteris incommodi (B. G. i. 13), remember (said he) the 
ancient disaster, {Direct: reminiscere. ] 
finem faciat (id. 20), 4et him make an end. {Direct: fac.] 


378 , 


Syntax: Dependent Constructions. 


[$$ 339, 340, 


ferrent opem, adiuvarent (Liv. ii. 6), let them bring aid, let them help. 


REMARK.— This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct discourse, 
but to the hortatory and the optative subjunctive as well. 


NOTE 1.— Though these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of the 
direct discourse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, being in fact 
dependent on the verb of saying, etc. (cf. §§ 286, 336. B, note 1). 

NOTE 2.—A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by né 
with the Subjunctive, even when n6li with the Infinitive would be used in the 


Direct: as,— 


né perturbarentur (B. G. vii. 29), do mot (he said) de trouble [ Direct: 
nolite perturbari. But sometimes nollet is found in Ind. Disc.] 


The following example illustrates some of the foregoing principles in 


a connected address : — 
INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 


Si pacem populus Romanus cum 
Helvetiis faceret, in eam partem iti- 
ros atque ibi futirdés Helvétios, ubi 
eos Caesar constituisset atque esse 
voluisset: sin bello persequi perse- 
véraret, reminiscerétur et veteris 
incommodi populi Romani, et pristi- 
nae virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod im- 
proviso unum pagum adortus esset, 
cum ei qui flumen transissent suis 
auxilium ferre non possent, née ob 
eam rem aut suae magno opere vir- 
tuti tribueret, aut ipsds déspiceret: 
sé ita a patribus maioribusque suis 
didicisse, ut magis virtiite quam dolo 
contenderent, aut insidiis niteren- 
tur. Quaré ne committeret, ut is 
locus ubi constitissent ex calamitate 
populi Romani et internecione exerci- 
tus nOmen caperet, aut memoriam 
proderet,— B, G, i. 13, 


DIRECT DISCOURSE, _ 

Si pacem populus Romanus cum 
Helvetiis faciet, in eam partem ibunt 
atque ibi erunt Helvétii, ubi eos tu 
constitueris atque esse volueris: sin 
bello persequi persevérabis, remini- 
scere [inquit] et veteris incommodi 
populi Romani, et pristinae virtutis 
Helvetiorum. Quod improviso unum 
pagum adortus es, cum ei qui flumen 
transierant suis auxilium ferre non 
possent, ne ob eam rem aut tuae 
magno opere virtuti tribueris, aut 
nos déspéxeris: nos ita a patribus 
maioribusque nostris didicimus, ut 
magis virtite quam dolo contenda- 
mus, aut insidiis nitamur. Quare 
noli committere, ut hic locus ubi 
constitimus ex calamitate populi Ro- 
mani et internecioOne exercitus nomen 
capiat, aut memoriam proédat. 


II. INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 
340. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive, (1) 
when it expresses the thought of some other person than 
the speaker or writer (/uformal Indirect Discourse), or 


(2) when it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or 


equivalent Infinitive! (Attraction). 





1 See note at head of Indirect Discourse, Pp- 369. 


§ 341.] Informal Indirect Discourse. 379 


1. Informal Indirect Discourse. 


341. A subordinate clause takes the subjunctive when 
it expresses the thought of some other person than the 
writer or speaker. Thus :— 


a. In subordinate clauses in formal indirect discourse (§ 336) ; but 
also in Informal Indirect Discourse in the following cases (6-d):— 

4. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a com- 
mand, or a guestion expressed indirectly, though not strictly in the 
form of Indirect Discourse: as, — 


animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Of. i. 14), a animal feels what it is 
that is fit. 

hunc sibi ex anim scripulum, qui sé diés noctésque stimulet ac pungat, ut 
evellatis postulat (Rosc. Am. 6), 4e begs you to pluck from his heart 
this doubt that goads and stings him day and night. (Here the rela- 
tive clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in évellatis, but is 
an assertion made by the subject of postulat.] 


c. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of 
saying, or some modifier of it: as, — 


si quid dé his rebus dicere vellet, féci potestatem (Catil. iii. 11), ¢f he 
wished to say anything about these matters, I gave him a chance. 

tulit de caede quae in Appia via facta esset (Milon. 15), Ze passed a law 
concerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place 
in the Appian Way. 

nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer eis minatur (Verr. ii. 162), he chreatens 
them violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main 
clause, “ that he will inflict punishment,” is contained in minatur.] 

eis auxilium suum pollicitus si ab Suevis premerentur (B. G. iv. 19), Ze 
promised them his aid tf they should be molested by the Suevi. [= pol- 
licitus sé auxilium latirum, etc.] 

prohibitio tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibébat pactioni (Ver. iii. 37), 
the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the 
bargain. 


ad. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a relative 
or by quod (rarely quia) (see § 321).1 Thus, — 
Paetus omnés libros qués pater suus reliquisset mihi ddnavit (Att. ii.i.12), 
Patus presented me all the books which (he said) his father had left. 


REMARK.— Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under 
other circumstances may have the Subjunctive. So also with quod even the verb 
of saying may be in the Subjunctive. Here belong also ndn quia, ndn quod, 
introducing a reason expressly to deny it. (See § 321. Rem. and note 2.) 





1 This usage probably originates in Apodosis, the condition being the supposed 
_ truth of the speaker, the main subject, (See Indirect Discourse, Note, p. 370.) 


380 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§ 342, 


2. Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction). 


$42. A clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or 
an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if 
regarded as an integral part of that clause: as, — 


imperat, dum rés adiudicétur, hominem ut adservent: cum itdicatum sit, 
ad sé adducant (Verr. ili. 55), Ae.orders them, till the affair should be 
decided, to keep the man; when he is judged, to bring him to him. 

etenim quis tam dissoluto animo est, qui haec cum videat, tacere ac negle- 
gere possit (Rosc. Am. 32), for who is so reckless of spirit, that, when 
he sees these things, he can keep silent and pass them by? 

mos est Athénis laudari in contiOne eds qui sint in proeliis interfecti 
(Or. 151), 2¢ is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized 
who have been slain in battle, [Here laudari is equivalent to ut 
laudentur. ] 


a. But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically 
‘with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative, if’ 
it is not regarded as a necessary /Jogical part of that clause: as, — 


quodam modo postulat ut, qaemadmodum est, sic etiam appelletur, tyran- 
nus (Att. x. 4), im @ manner he demands that as he is, so he may be © 
called, a tyrant. 

si mea in te essent officia solum tanta quanta magis a te ipso praedicari 
quam a me ponderari solent, verecundius a te... peterem (Fam. ii. 6), 
if my good services to you were only so great as they are wont rather to 
be called by you than to be estimated by me, I should, etc, 
natura fert ut eis faveamus qui eadem pericula quibus nos perfincti sumus 
ingrediuntur (Muren. 4), zature prompts us to feel friendly towards those 
who are entering on the same dangers which we have passed through. 

né hostes, quod tantum multitudine poterant, suds circumvenire possent 
(B. G. ii. 8), lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, — 
should be able to surround his men. 

NOTE. — The use of.the Indicative in such clauses sometimes serves to empha- 
size the fact, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive ~ 
or infinitive clause. But in many cases no such distinction between the Indicative ~ 
and Subjunctive is perceptible. y 


ae 





1 The Subjunctive in this use is in a manner of the same nature as the Sub- — 
junctive in the main clause. A dependent clause in a clause of Purpose is really a — 
part of the purpose, as is seen from the use of shouw/d and other auxiliaries in Eng- 
lish. Ina Result clause this is less clear, but the result construction is a branch of © 
the characteristic, to which category the dependent clause in this case evidently © 
belongs, when it takes the Subjunctive. ‘i 

It is often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse and the — 
Integral Part. Thus inimper&vit ut ea flerent quae opus essent, essent — 
may stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the — 
thought, but not a part of the order; or it may stand for erunt, and then will bey 
Integral Part, being a part of the order itself. & 

4 
a 


Us 


14. 


15. 


© 19. 


Syntax: Important Rules. 381 


IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX. 


. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, 


agrees with it in Case (§ 183). 


. Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles agree with their nouns in 


gender, number, and case (§ 186). 


. A Relative pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in gender and numer, 


but its case depends on the. construction of the clause in which it 
stands (§ 198). 
A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in ember and person (§ 204). 


. Superlatives (more rarely comparatives) denoting order and succession— 


also medius, céterus, reliquus— usually designate not what object, 
but what part of it, is meant (§ 193). 
The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in 
-im being used sartitively, and that in -1 oftenest odjectively (§ 194. 0). 
The Reflexive pronoun (sé), and usually the corresponding possessive 
(suus), are used in some part of the predicate to refer to the subject of 
the sentence or clause (§ 196). 


- The Possessive Pronouns are used instead of the genitive of a personal 


pronoun: (1) always instead of the possessive genitive, (2) rarely in- 
stead of an objective genitive (§ 197. a). 


. A Possessive representing a genitive may have a genitive in apposition 


(§ 197. e). 


. Adverbs are used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs (§ 207). 
. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer YES or NO, is formed by 


adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word (§ 210. a). 


. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word,—as in nonne, — 


an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a nega- 
tive answer (§ 210. ¢). 


. The subject of a finite verb is in the NOMINATIVE (§ 173. @). 


A noun used to limit or define another, and 7o¢ meaning the same person 
or thing, is put in the GENITIVE (§ 213). 

The Subjective Genitive is used with a noun to denote (1) the Author or 
Owner, (2) the Source or the Material, (3) the Quality (§ 214). 

Words denoting a Part are followed by the genitive of the Whole to 
which the part belongs (Partitive Genitive, § 216). 

Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the genitive of the object 
(Objective Genitive, § 217). 


. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, 


guilt, and their opposites; verbals in -Ax, and participles in -ns when 
used as adjectives, govern the Genitive (§ 218. a, 4). 

Verbs of remembering, forgetting, take the Genitive of the object when 
they are used of a continued state of mind, but the Accusative when 
used of a single act (§ 219). | 


382 Syntax: Important Rules. 


=. 
20. 
"21, 


™ 22. 


23. 


25. 


26. 


7? 28s 


29. 


30. 


31. 


33: 


ia, SG 


Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acguitting take the Genitive of the 
Charge or Penalty (§ 220). 

The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an action (/udi- 
rect Object, § 224). 

Most verbs meaning to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries; also, 
to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, 
and spare, take the Dative (§ 227). 

Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, 
pro, sub, super, and some with circum, are followed by the Dative 
of the indirect object (§ 228). 


. Many verbs of taking away, and the like, take the Dative (especially of a 


person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 229). 


The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession 


(§ 231). 
The Dative of the Agent is died with the Gerundive, to denote the per- 
son on whom the necessity rests (§ 232). 


Dative of:the person or thing affected (§ 233. a). 

The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fitmess, near- 
ness, service, inclination, and their opposites (§ 234. @). 

The Dative is often required, not by any particular word, but by the gen- 
eral meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference, § 235). 

The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the ACCUSATIVE (§ 
237). 


A neuter verb often takes an accusative of kindred meaning (§ 238). 


. Verbs of xaming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and 


the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object 
(§ 239. 2). 

Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addi- 
tion to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by 
the preposition (§ 239. 4). 


. Verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one of the fer- 


son, and the other of the shing (§ 239. ¢). 


. The subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative (§ 173. 2). 
. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusative 


(§ 240. ¢). 


. The VOCATIVE is the case of direct address (§ 241). . 
. Words signifying separation or privation are followed by the ABLATIVE, 


with or without a preposition (Adlative of Separation, § 243). 


Opus and iusus, signifying xeed, are followed by the Ablative (§ 243. ¢). 
. The ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to denote the source 


from which anything is derived or the materia? of which it consists 
C$ 244). 


. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with diacthvet q 


4l. 


"42. 


55 
56. 


57: 


Syntax: Important Rules. 383 


The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to express cause 
(§ 245). 

Dignus and indignus, contentus, laetus, praeditus, etc., take the Ab- 
lative (§ 245. a). 

The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is put in the Ablative with a or 
ab (§ 246). 

The Comparative degree is followed by the Ablative (signifying THAN) 
(§ 247). 

The Comparative may be followed by quam, “ham. When quam is used, 
the two things compared are put in the same case (§ 247. a). 


. The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with cum, 


unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun (§ 248). 


. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum (§ 


248. @). 


. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action (§ 


248. ¢. 1). 


. The deponents, titor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor, with several of 


their compounds, govern the Ablative (§ 249). 


. With comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative is used 


to denote the degree of difference (§ 250). 


. The guality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with a modifier, usually 


an adjective or limiting genitive (§ 251). 


. The rice of a thing is put in the Ablative (§ 252). 
. The Ablative of Specification denotes that 7 respect to which anything zs 


or is done (§ 253). 

A noun or pronoun, with a participle, may be put in the Ablative, to de- 
fine the “me or circumstances of an action (Adlative Absolute). 
An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the 

ablative absolute construction (§ 255 and a). 

Time when, or within which, is put in the Ablative; time Zow long in the 
Accusative (§ 256). 

The place from which is denoted by the Ablative with ab, dé, or ex; the 
place to which (the end of motion), by the Accusative with ad or in 
(§ 258. ¢). 


The names of towns or small islands from which, as also domus and ris, 
are put in the Ablative without a preposition (§ 258. a). 

The names of towns or small islands ¢o which, as also domus and ris, are 
put in the Accusative without a preposition (§ 258. 4). 


The place where is denoted by the Ablative with the preposition in (Zoca- 
tive Ablative); but names of towns and small islands are put in the 
Locative Case (§ 258. ¢). 


The Locative Case is also preserved in domi, belli, militiae, humi, 
foris, riiri, terra marique (§ 258. 2). 


SS Syntax: Important Rules. 


58. 


59- 


61. 


62. 


63. 
64. 


65. 


66. 


67. 


68. 


69. 


79°. 


71 


72. 


73- 


74 


The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used with ese 
and similar verbs (1) as the szdject, (2) as in apposition with the sub- 
ject, or (3) as a predicate nominative (§ 270). 

The Infinitive, without a subject accusative, is used with verbs which im- 
ply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning 
(Complementary Infinitive, § 271). 

The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other ex- 
pressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving ({ndireci Dis-. — 
course, see § 272). 

The Infinitive is often used in narrative for the Imperfect Indicative, and 
takes a subject in the Nominative (//istorical [nfinitive, § 275). | 

SEQUENCE OF TENSES. In complex sentences, a primary tense in the — 
main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive; a secon- 
dary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect (§ 286). 

The tenses of the Infinitive denote time as present, past, or future with 
respect to the time of the verb on which they depend (§ 288), _ 

PARTICIPLES denote time as present, pact, or future with respect to the’ 
time of the verb in their clause (§ 290). 

The GERUND and the GERUNDIVE are used, in the oblique cases, in many 
of the constructions of nouns (§ 297). [ 


For particulars see §§ 298-301. 


The Former SUPINE (in -um) is used after verbs of motion to express — 
Purpose (§ 302). 

The Latter SUPINE (in -ti) is used only with a few adjectives, with the © 
nouns fas, nefas, and opus, and rarely with verbs, to denote an action 
in reference to which the quality is asserted (§ 303). 

The Hortatory SUBJUNCTIVE is used to express an exhortation, a command, 
a concession, or a condition (§ 266). . 

The Subjunctive is used to express a wisk. The present tense denotes the _ 

_ wish as possible, the imperfect as wxaccomplished in present time, the — 
pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time ( Optative Subjunctive, § 267). 

The Subjunctive is used in questions implying doudt, indignation, or — 
an impossibility of the thing being done (Deliberative Subjunctive,— 
§ 268). &' 

Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by né with the 
second person of the Perfect Subjunctive, (2) by noli with the Infini- 
tive, (3) by cave with the Present or Perfect Subjunctive (§ 269. a). 

The Potential Subjunctive is used to denote an action not as actually fer 
formed, but as possible (§ 311. @). . 

Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum, introducing a Proviso, take the , 
Subjunctive ($ 314). i 

Fina clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti), negative 
(ut né), or by a Relative (pronoun or adverb) (§ 317). 


all Ps bea 





a. ee 
















Lt hap ese Sal ’ 





75: 


76. 


By. 


Syntax: lmporiant Rules. 385 


CONSECUTIVE clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so shat (neg- 
ative, ut ndn), or by a Relative (pronoun or adverb) (§ 319). 

Dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus, take a clause of result with a 
relative (rarely with ut) (§ 320. f/). 

The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative 
when the reason is given on the authority of the speaker or writer ; 
the Subjunctive when the reason is given on the authority of another 


(§ 321). 


. Cum TEMPORAL, meaning when, takes the Imperfect and Pluperfect in 


the Subjunctive, other tenses in the Indicative (§ 325). 


. Cum CAUSAL or CONCESSIVE takes the Subjunctive (§ 326). 


For other concessive particles, see § 313. 


In the INpDIREcT DiIscouRSE the maiz clause of a Declaratory Sentence 
is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate clauses 
take the Subjunctive (§ 336. 2). 


. In the Indirect Discourse a real guestion is generally put in the Subjunc- 


tive; a rhetorical question in the Infinitive (§ 338). 


. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect Dis- 


course (§ 339). 
A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive Shea it expresses the thought 


of some other person than the writer or speaker (Jnformal Indirect 
Discourse, § 341). 

A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive 
will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an tutegral part of that 
clause (Attraction, § 342). 

For PREPOSITIONS and their cases, see §§ 152, 153. 
For ConDITIONAL Sentences, see § 304. ff. (Scheme in § 305.) 
For ways of expressing PURPOSE, see § 318, 


386 Syntax: Order of Words. [§§ 343, 344, 


CuarteR VI.— Order of Words. 


NOTE.— Latin differs from English in having more freedom in the arrange- 
ment of words for the purpose of showing the relative importance of the ideas in a 
sentence. 


843. As in other languages, the Subject tends to stand 
first, the Predicate last. Thus, — 

Pausanias Lacedaemonius magnus homo sed varius in omni genere vitae 

fuit. 

NOTE.— This happens because from the speaker's ordinary point of view the — 
subject of his discourse is the most important thing in it, as singled out from all 
other things to be spoken of. 

There is in Latin, however, a special tendency to place 
the verb itself /as¢ of al// after all its modifiers. But many — 
writers purposely avoid the monotony of this arrangement — 
by putting the verb last but one, followed by some single © 


word of the predicate. 


344. In connected discourse the word most prominent 
in the speaker's mind comes first, and so on in order of 


prominence. ; 

This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated 
in English by a graduated stress of voice (usually called 
emphasis). ‘a 

NOTE. — This stress or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show — 
any violent contrast to the rest of the words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied, — 
constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed ex- 
cept in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in a Latin 
sentence is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good 
speaker would mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sen-— 
tence, therefore, has all the clearness and expression which could be given toa 
spoken discourse by the best actor in English. 


REMARK.— Some exceptions to this rule will be treated later. 


Thus the first chapter of Czsar’s Gallic War rendered so as to bring 
out so far as possible the shades of emphasis, would run thus: — 









§ 344] 


GAUL,! in the widest sense, is di- 
vided? into three farés,3 which are 
inhabited* (as follows): one® by the 
Belgians, another ® by the Aquitani, 
the third by a people called in cheir 
own’ language Celts, in ours Gauls. 
THESE,’ in their language,® institu- 
tions, and laws are a// of them ° dif- 
ferent: The GAULS! (proper) are 
separated 2 from the Aquitani by 


Emphasis. 


387 


Gallia est omnis divisa in partes 
tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, 
aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum 
lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellan- 
tur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legi- 
bus inter se differunt. Gallos ab 
Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis 
Matrona et Sequana dividit. Horum 
omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, prop- 
terea quod a cultu atque humanitate 





the river Garonne, from the Belgians 
by the Marne and Seine. Of THESE} (TRIBES) the bravest of all are the 
Belgians, for the reason that they live farthest © away from the CIVILIZA- 





1 GAUL: emphatic as the subject of discourse, as with a title or the like. 

2 Divided: opposed to the false conception (implied in the use of omnis) that 
the country called Gallia by the Romans is one. This appears more clearly from 
the fact that Czesar later speaks of the Galli in the narrower sense as distinct from 
the other two tribes, who with them inhabit Gallia in the wider sense. 

8 Parts: continuing the emphasis begun in divisa. Not ¢hree parts as opposed 
to any other number, but into Jar‘s at all. 

4 Inhabited ; emphatic as the next subject, “ Te inhabitants of these parts are, etc.” 

5 One: given more prominence than it otherwise would have on account of its 
close connection with quarum. 

6 Another, etc.: opposed to one. 

’ Their own, ours: strongly opposed to each other. 

8 THESE (tribes) : the main subject of discourse again, collecting under one head 
the names previously mentioned. 

9 Language, etc,: these are the most prominent ideas as giving the striking 
points which distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English if 
we say “ these have a different /anguage, different imstitutions, different Jaws.” 

10 4// of them: the emphasis on a// marks the distributive character of the 
adjective, as if it were “ every one has its own, etc.” 

11 GAULS: emphatic as referring to the Gauls proper in distinction from the 
other tribes. 

12 Separated : though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, 
yet it has a subordinate position. It is not emphatic in Latin, as is seen from the-fact 
that it cannot be made emphatic in English. The sense is: The Gauls lie between 
the Aguitani on the one side, and the Belge on the other. 

18 OF THESE: the subject of discourse. 

14 All: emphasizing the superlative idea in bravest ; they, as Gauls, are assumed 
to be warlike, but the most so of all of them are the Belgians. 

15 Farthest away: one might expect absunt (are away) to have a more em- 
phatic place, but it is dwarfed in importance by the predominance of the main 
idea, the efeminating influences from which the Belgz are said to be free. It is 
not that they live farthest off that is insisted on, but that the civilization of the 
province, etc., which would soften them, comes less in their way. It is to be noticed 
also that absunt has already been anticipated by the construction of cultt and 
still more by longissim6, so that when it comes it amounts only to a formal part 
of the sentence. Thus because the civilization, etc., of the province (which would 
soften them) is farthest from them, 


388 


TION and REFINEMENT of the Prov- 
ince, and because they are LEAsT !6 
of all of them subject to the visits of 
traders,’ and to the (consequent) im- 
portation of such things as 1* tend to 
soften ® their warlike spirit; and are 
also nearest” to the Germans, who 
live across the Rhine, and with 
whom they are incessantly ™* at war. 
For the same reason the HELVETII, 
as well, are superior to all the other 
Gauls in valor, because they are en- 
gaged in almost daily battles with the 
Germans, either defending their own 
boundaries from ¢#em, or themselves 
making war on éhose of the Germans. 
Of ALL THIS country, one part, the 
one which as has been said the Gauls 
(proper) occupy, BEGINS at the river 
Rhone. Its boundaries are the river 
Garonne, the ocean, and the confines 
of the Belgians. It even REACHES on 
the side of the Seguani and Helve- 
tians the river Rhine. Its general 
direction is towards the north. The 
BELGIANS begin at the extreme /im- 
its of Gaul; they reach (on this side) 
as far as the lower part of the Rhine. 


Syntax: Order of Words. 


[§ 344. 


provinciae longissime absunt, minime- 
que ad eos mercatores saepe com- 
meant atque ea quae ad effeminandds 
animos pertinent, important, proximi- 
que sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum 
incolunt, quibuscum continenter bel- 
lum gerunt. Qua dé causa Helvetii 
quoque reliquos Gallos virttite praece- 
dunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis 
cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut 
suis finibus eOs prohibent, aut ipsi in 
eorum finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum 
una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dic- 
tum est, initium capit a flumine Rho- 
dano; continentur Garumna flumine, 
Oceano, finibus Belgarum; attingit 
etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen 
Rhenum; vergit ad _ septentriOnés. ° 
Belgae ab extrémis Galliae finibus 
oriuntur: pertinent ad inferiorem par- 
tem fluminis Rheni; spectant in sep- 
tentrionem et orientem solem. Aqui- 
tania a Garumna flumine ad Pyre- 
naeos montés et eam partem Oceani, 
quae est ad Hispaniam, pertinet; 
spectat inter occasum solis et septen- 
triones. 


They spread to the northward and eastward. 
AQUITANIA extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and that 


part of the ocean that lies towards Spain. 


northward. 


It runs off westward and 





16 LEAST: made emphatic here by a common Latin order, —the chiasmus (see 


J; P- 390). 


17 traders: the fourth member of the chiasmus opposed to cultti and hii- 


manitate. 


18 Such things as: the importance of the zafure of the importations 
overshadows the fact that they are émported, which fact is anticipated in 


“ traders.” 


19 Soften: cf. what is said in note 15, They are drave because they have 
less to soften them, their native barbarity being assumed. 

2 Nearest: the same idiomatic prominence as in 16, but varied by a spe- 
cial usage (see f p. 390) combining chiasmus and anaphora. 

21 Across the Rhine; i.e. and so are perfect savages. 

22 Incessantly; the continuance of the warfare becomes the all-important 
idea, as if it were, “and not a day passes in which they are not at war 


with them.” 


sh ia ana fe Sa alia ice TE AR L! Be shi Ki i aa 


Li pang dinates tae ity Re 








ee? 
ne 


§ 344.) Special Rules of Order. 389 


REMARK. — The more important word is never placed last for 
emphasis. The apparent cases of this usage (when the emphasis is 
not misconcéived) are cases where a word is added as an afterthought, 
either real or affected, and so has its position not in the sentence to 
which it is appended, but, as it were, in a new one. 


a. In any phrase the determining and most significant word comes 
first: as, — 


1. Adjective and Noun: — 


omnés hominés decet, EVERY man ought (opposed to some who do not). 

Lucius Catilina ndbili genere natus fuit magna vi et animi et corporis sed 
ingenio malo pravoque (Sall. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline was born of a 
NOBLE family, with GREAT force of mind and body, but with a NATURE 
that was evil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are the 
emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns being as 
yet thought of; but in the second branch the zowz is meant to be opposed 
to those before mentioned, and immediately takes the prominent place, 
as is seen by the natural English emphasis, thus making a chiasmus.]| 


2. Word with modifying case: — 

cui rei magis Epaminondam, Thébanorum imperatorem, quam victoriae 
Thebanorum consulere decuit (Inv. i. 69), what should Epaminondas, 
commander of the THEBANS, have aimed at more than the VICTORY of 
the Thebans ? 

lacrima nihil citius arescit (id. i. 109), zothing dries quicker than a TEAR. 

nemo feré laudis cupidus (De Or.i. 14), hardly any one desirous of GLORY 
(cf. Manil. 7, avidi laudis, EAGER for glory). 


5. Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative, 
and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the word or 
words to which they belong: as,--- 


cum aliqua perturbatione (Of. i. 137), with SOME disturbance. 

hoe uno praestamus (De Or. i. 32), 2 THIS one thing we excel. 

céterae fere artes, he OTHER avs. 

NOTE. — This happens because such words are usually emphatic; but often the 
words connected with them are more so, and in such cases the pronouns, etc., ons 
the emphatic place: as, — 

causa aliqua (De Or. i. 250), some CASE. 

stilus ille tuus (id.i. 257), ¢ha¢ STYLE of yours (in an antithesis; see pas- 

sage). 

Rodmam quae asportata sunt (Ver.iv. 121), what were carried to ROME (in 

contrast to what remained at Syracuse). 


. When sum is used as the Substantive verb (§ 172, note), it regu- 


_ larly stands first, or at any rate before its subject: as, — 


est viri magni punire sontes (Off. i. 82), 2¢ is the duty of a great. man to 
punish the guilty. 


390 Syntax: Order of Words. [§ 344. 


ad. The verb may come first, or have a prominent position either 
(1) because the zdea in it is emphatic: as, — 


dicébat idem Cotta (Off. ii. 59), Cotta used to SAY the same thing (opposed 
to others’ doasting). 

idem fécit adulescens M. Antonius (id. ii. 49), the same thing was DONE 
by M. Antonius in his youth. [Opposed to dixi just before. ] 

facis benigne (Lzl.), you act kindly. [Cf. benigné facis, you are very 
KIND (you act KINDLY). ] 


(2) or because the Aredication of the whole statement is emphatic: as, — 
propensior benignitas esse debebit in calamitosos nisi forte erunt digni 
calamitate (Off. ii. 62), wsless perchance they REALLY DESERVE their 
misfortune. 
praesertim cum scribat (Panaetius) (id. iii. 8), especially when he DOES 
SAY (in his books). [Opposed to something omitted by him.] 


(3) or the Zemse only may be emphatic: as, — 


fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (AEn. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy 
is now no more. 

loquor autem de communibus amicitiis (Off. iii. 45), but I am speaking 
now, etc. 


é. Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about 
by giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and leav- 
ing the less prominent parts to follow in inconspicuous places: as, — 


plures solent esse causae (Of. i. 28), here are USUALLY SEVERAL reasons. 

quos amisimus civis eos Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17), WHAT fellow-citizens 
we have LOST, have been stricken down by the violence of war. 

maximas tibi omnes gratias agimus (Marc. 33), we ALL render you the 
WARMEST ¢hanks. 

haec res unius est propria Caesaris (Marc. 11), THIS exploit belongs to Cesar 
ALONE. 

obiurgationeés etiam nOnnunquam incidunt necessariae (Of. i. 136), OCCA- 
SIONS FOR REBUKE a@/so SOMETIMES occur which are unavoidable. 


jf. Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated either (1) by 
placing the pairs in the same order (anaphora) or (2) in exactly the 
opposite order (chiasmus?). 


(1) rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Orat. iii. 125), ABUNDANCE of 
MATTER produces COPIOUSNESS of EXPRESSION. 

(2) légés supplicio improbds afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonds (Fin. iii. 5), 
the laws VISIT PUNISHMENTS upon the WICKED, but the GOOD they DEFEND 
and PROTECT. 





1 So-called from the Greek letter X (ch), on account of the criss-cross arrange- 
ment. Thus $x?. . 


emits Meda hat ee EP: 





Shaka gle fine Reade Sepa CUE ES 


LPG aR Hi a Sgn Cae nh nticbors od 6 oy PAR! en 
-, . 


§ 344.] Special Rules of Order. 391 


NOTE, — Chiasmus is very common in Latin, and seems in fact the more 
inartificial construction. In an artless narrative one might hear, ‘“‘ The women were 
all drowned, they saved the men.” 


non igitur utilitatem amicitia sed utilitas amicitiam consecuta est (Lel. 14), 
it is not then that friendship has followed upon advantage, but advan- 
tage upon friendship. [Here the chiasmus is only grammatical, the 
ideas being in the parallel order.] (See also in the example from 
Cesar, p. 388: longissimé, minimé, proximi.) 

g. A modifier of a phrase or some part of it is often embodied within 

the phrase (cf..@): as, — 

dé communi hominum memoria (Tusc. i. 59), in regard to the UNIVERSAL 
memory of man. 

h. A favorite order with the poets is the zwterlocked, by which the attri- 

bute of one pair comes between the parts of the other (syuchyszs) : as, — 

et superiecto pavidae natarunt aequore damae (Hor. Od. i. 2. 11). 

NOTE. — This is often joined with chiasmus: as, — 

arma nondum expiatis uncta cruoribus (id. ii. 1. 5). 


z. Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more 
emphatic ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so 
acquire a prominence out of proportion to their importance: as, — 

dictitabat se hortulos aliquos emere velle (Offic. iii. 58), gave out that he 

wanted to buy some gardens. [Here aliquoés is less emphatic than 
emere, but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortulds. | 

j. The copula is generally felt to be of so little importance that it 
may come in anywhere where it sounds well; but usually under cover 
of more emphatic words: as, — 

consul ego quaesivi, cum vos mihi essetis in consilio (Repub. iii. 28), as 

consul I held an investigation in which you attended me in council, 
falsum est id totum (id. ii. 28), that ts all false. 

k. Many expressions have acquired an invariable order: as, — 

res publica; populus Romanus; honoris causa; pace tanti viri. 

NOTE. — These had, no doubt, originally an emphasis which required such an 
arrangement, but in the course of time have changed their shade of meaning. 
Thus, senaétus populusque ROma&nus originally stated with emphasis the 
official bodies, but became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expression. 

7. The Romans had a fondness for emphasizing persons, so that a 
name or a pronoun often stands in an emphatic place: as, — 

[dixit] venalis quidem sé hortos non habere (Offic. iii. 58), [said] chat he 

didw’t have any gardens for sale, to be sure, 

m. Kindred words, as in figura etymologica, often come together : 


ita sensim sine sensu aetas senescit (C. M. 38), thus gradually, without 


» being perceived, man’s life grows old, * 


392 Syntax: Order of Words. [S$ 345, 346. 


Special Rules. 
345. The following are special rules of arrangement :— 


a. 1. Prepositions (except tenus and versus) regularly precede 
their nouns; 2. but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between 
a noun and its adjective or limiting genitive: as, — 

quem ad modum; quam ob rem; magno cum metu; omnibus cum copiis; 

nulla in re (cf. § 344. 2). 

&. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence or clause; enim, 
autem, vér6, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third 
if the second word is emphatic; quidem never first, but after the 
emphatic word; né. . . quidem include the emphatic word or words. 

c. Inquam, inquit, are always used parenthetically, following one or 
more words. So often créd6, opinor, and in poetry sometimes precor. 

d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if it be- 
longs to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb; if itis © 
especially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 344. /, note.) 

é. Inthe arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often comes 
first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun: as, — 


quos amisimus civis, eos Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17), those citizens whom 
we have lost, etc. 


Structure of the Period. 


NOTE. — Latin, unlike modern languages, expresses the relation of words to 
each other by izflection rather than by fosition. Hence its structure not only 
admits of great variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to 
that form of sentence which is called a Period. Ina period, the sense is expressed 
by the sentence as a whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word. 

An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imi- 
tated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English 
prose; butits effect is better seen in poetry, in such a passage as the following : — 

** High on athrone of royal state, which far 
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, 
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand 
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, 
Satan exalted sat.” — Paradzse Lost, Book II. 1-5. 


But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give 
short clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. 
In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole; and the 
logical relation among all its parts is carefully indicated. Hence— 


346. In the structure of the Period, the following rules 
are to be obServed :— 


a. In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause, 
not in a subordinate one (according to § 344): as, — 











ILS leg fan eR NS AER NRE Be TERE STN ESP aE 


ii ide Ni 


Oe ead 


§ 346.] | Structure: the Period. 393 


Hannibal cum recénsuisset auxilia Gades profectus est, when Hannibal 
had reviewed, etc. 

Volsci exiguam spem in armis, alia undique abscissa, cum tentassent, prae- 
ter cetera adversa, loco quoque iniquo ad pugnam congressi, iniquiore 
ad fugam, cum ab omni parte caederentur, ad preces a certamine versi 
dedito imperatore traditisque armis, sub iugum missi, cum singulis vesti- 
mentis, ignoOminiae cladisque pleni dimittuntur (Liv. iv. 10). [Here 
the main fact is the return of the Volscians. But the striking circum- 
stances of the surrender, etc., which in English would be detailed in a 
number of brief independent sentences, are put in the several subordi- 
nate clauses within the main clause, so that the passage gives a com- 
plete picture in one sentence. ] 


4. Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the 
mind of the speaker; so, usually, cause before result; purpose, man- 
ner, and the like, before the act. 

c. In co-ordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently 
omitted (asyndeton). In such cases the connection is made clear by 
some antithesis indicated by the position of words. 

d. A change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduc- 
tion of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But 
such change is often purposely avoided by a change in structure, — the 
less important being merged in the more important by the aid of parti- 
ciples or of subordinate phrases: as, — 

quem ut barbari incendium effugisse vidérunt, telis eminus emissis inter- 


fecerunt, when the barbarians saw that he had escaped, THEY threw 
darts at HIM and killed HIM. 


celeriter cOnfecto negotio, in hiberna legionés reverterunt, “he matter was 
soon finished, AND the legions, etc. 


é. So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for 
it, is avoided unless a different case is required: as, — 


dolorem si non potero frangere occultabo, if J cannot conquer the pain, I 
will hideit, [Cf. if [cannot conquer I will hide the pain.) 
jf. The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable 
succession of long and short syllables. Thus, — 


quod scis nihil prodest, quod necis multum obest (Or. 166), what you know 
is of no use, what you do not know does great harm. 


oe 


PART THIRD.— PROSODY (RULES OF 
VERSE). 


CHAPTER I.— Quantity. 


NOTE.— The poetry of the Indo-European people seems originally to have 
been somewhat like our own, depending on accent for its metre and disregarding 
the natural quantity of syllables. The Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry 
which, like music, pays close attention to the natural quantity of syllables; and the 
Romans borrowed their metrical forms in classical times from the Greeks. Hence 


Latin poetry does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme; but is measured, 


like musical strains, by the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from our 
verse in not regarding the prose accent of the words, but substituting for that an 
entirely different system of metrical accent or zctus (see § 358.a). This depends upon 
the character of the measure used, falling regularly on certain long syllables. Each 
syllable is counted as either long or short in Quantity ;1 and a long syllable is gen- 
erally reckoned equal in length to two short ones (for exceptions, see § 355. c-e). 

The quantity of radical or stem-syllables—as of short a in p&ter or of long 
@ in mater —can be learned only by observation and practice, unless determined 
by the general rules of quantity. Most of the rules of Prosody are only arbitrary 
rules devised to assist the memory; the syllables being long or short decause the 
ancients pronounced them so, The actual practice of the Romans in regard to the 
quantity of syllables is ascertained chiefly from the usage of the poets; but the 
ancient grammarians give some assistance, and in some inscriptioris the long 
vowels are distinguished in various ways,—by marks over the letters, for instance, 
or by doubling. 

Since Roman poets borrowed very largely from the poetry and mythology ot 
the Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important 
part of Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accordance with the 
Greek, and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary in any impor- 
tant point, the variations will be noticed in the rules below. 


1. General Rules. 


347. The following are General Rules of Quantity (cf. 
§ 18):— 


a. VOWEL. A vowel before another vowel or h is short: as, via, 
trahs. 





1 The terms /omg and short, when used of Latin sounds, apply to their guantity; 
when used of English sounds, to their gua/ity. 





Se 


§ 347.] General Rules of Quantity. 395 


~. EXcEpTIons. 1. In the genitive form -ius, I is long, except usually 
in alterius. Thus, utrius, nillius. It is, however, sometimes made 
short in verse (§ 83. 4). 

2. In the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, e is long 
between two vowels: as, di€I; but it is short in fidéi, réi, spéi. 

NOTE. — It was once long in these also: as, pl6nuS fidéi (Ennius, at end of 
hexameter). 

A is also long before Tin the old genitive of the first declension: as, aulai. 

3. In the conjugation of f16, i is long except when followed by er. 
. Thus, fi6, fiébam, fiam, but fieri, fierem ; so also fit, by § 354. a. 3. 
i 4. In many Greek words the vowel in Latin represents a long vowel 
é or diphthong, and retains its original long quantity: as, Trées (Tpdes), 
Thalia (@aXcia), hérdas (ypwas), Ar (dnp). 

NOTE. — But many Greek words are more or less Latinized in this respect: as, 
ri Académia, choréa, Maléa, platéa. 
cs 5. In Sheu and dius, and sometimes in Diana and 6he the first 
vowel is long. 

6. DipHtHonc. A Diphthong is long: as, foedus, citi, déinde. 

EXCEPTION. The preposition prae in compounds is generally 
shortened before a vowel: as, prae-iistis (/En. vii. 524), prae-eunte 
(id. v. 186). 
d NoTE.— U following q, 8, or g, doe$ not make a diphthong with a following 
2 vowel (see § 4. n. 3). 
: c. CONTRACTION. A vowel formed by contraction (craszs) is long: 
as, nil, from nihil; curriis, genitive for curruis. 

But often two syllables are united by Synzeresis without contraction: as when 
p&riétibtis is pronounced paryétibus, 

d. PosITION. A vowel, though short, followed by two consonants 
__ ora double consonant, makes a long syllable: as, adventus, cortex. 
3 But if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r the syllable 
may be either long or short (common) ; as, alacris or aldcris; patris 
or patris. 

NOTE 1.— Any vowel before i consonant makes a long syllable (except in 
biiugis, quadriiugis), 

But it is probable that in all such cases the vowel was long by nature, So also 
réiciG, etc. (from ré-iacid), cf. note 2. 

NOTE 2.—The compounds of iaci6, though written with one i, commonly 
retain the long vowel of the prepositions with which they are compounded, as if 


before a consonant, and lengthen the short as if by Position. (But how the 
___ $yllables were pronounced is uncertain.) Thus,— 
' gbicis hosti (at the end of a hexameter, AEn. iv. 549). 
: inicit et salti (at the beginning of a hexameter, AEn. ix. 552). 
: proice téla mani (at the beginning of a hexameter, fn. vi. 836). 


— — 


AaB MS BE 1M 


een Lar 





iy 
a 
$ 

4 
be J 
. 








396 Prosody: Quantity. [S$ 347, 348 


The later poets sometimes shorten the preposition in trisyllabic forms, and the | 
prepositions ending in a vowel are sometimes contracted as if the verb began with 
a vowel, Thus:— 

(1) turpe pu|tas Abi|ci (Ov. Pont. ii. 3, 37). 
ciir an|n6s Sbi|cis (Claud. Cons. Hon. iv. 364). 
(2) réic& c4|pellas (Ecl. iii. 96, at end). 

REMARK.— The y or W sound resulting from syz@resis has the effect of a con- 
sonant in making position: as, abietis (abyetis), fluvi6rum (fuvydrum), Con- 
versely, when the semivowel becomes a vowel, position is lost: as, siltiae, for silyae. 

é. In early Latin, s at the end of words was not sounded, and hence 
does not make position with another consonant. 


REMARK.— A syllable made long by the rule in d, but containing a short vowe/, 
is said to be long by POSITION: as in docétne, The rules of Position do not, in 
general, apply to final vowels. 


2. Final Syllables. 


- The Quantity of Final Syllables is determined “8 
the a ae Rules :— 


1. Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are long: as, mé, tii, 
hi, né. 

The attached particles -né, -qué, -vé, -c8, -pt8, and ré- (x8d-) ; are 
short; sé- is long. Thus, sécédit, exercitumqué réditicit. But re- 
is often Jong in réligi6 (relligid), rétuli (rettuli), répulf (reppulf). 

2. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long: as, 861, 6s (Gris), 
b6s, par, vis. 

EXCEPTIONS. cdr (sometimes long), fél, lac, mél, 5s (ossis), 
vir, tot, quot. 

3 Most monosyllabic Particles are short: as, An, in, cis, n&c. But 
Ac, cras, ciir, 6n, n6n, quin, sin — with adverbs inc: as, hic, hic, 
sic — are long. 

4. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative 
singular of the first declension ; in all other words final ais long. Thus, 
ea stellA (nom.), cum ea stella (abl.) ; friistra, voca (imperat.), 
postea, triginta. 

EXCEPTIONS. 618, ita, quia, put& (swfpose): and, in late use, 
triginta, etc. 

5. Final e is short, as in nibé, diicité, saep&. Except — 

1. In nouns of the fifth declension: as, fidé (also famé), hodié 
(hoi dié), quaré (qua ré). 

2. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension: as, cété. 

3. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declen- 
sion, with others of like form: as, alté, miseré, aperté, saepissimé. 
So feré, fermé, probably of same origin. 


§ 348. |} Quantity of Final Syllables. 307 


4. In the imperative Si ai of the second conjugation: as, 
vidé. 

EXCEPTIONS. To 3: bené, malé; inferné,superné. To 4: some- 
times, cavé, habé, tacé, val8, vidé (cf. § 375. 4). 

6. Final i is long: as in turri, fili, audi. © 

But it is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi; and short in nisi, 
quasi, cui (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives, as 
Alexi. 

7. Final o is common; but long in datives and ablatives, also, 
almost invariably, in verbs, and in nouns of the third declension. 

EXCEPTIONS. cit6, mod6, flicd, profectd, dummod6é, imm3d, 
egd, dud, octd. 

8. Final u is long. Final y is short. 

9. Final as, es, os, are long; final is, us, ys, are short; as, nefas, 
riipés, servds (acc.), honds; hostis, amiciis, Tethys. 

EXCEPTIONS. as is short in Greek plural accusatives, as lampadias ; 
and in ands. : 

es is short in nouns of the third declension (lingual) having a short 
vowel in the stem?: as, milés (-itis), obs&s (-idis), — except abiés, 
ariés, pariés, pés; in the present of esse (&s, ad&s) ; in the prepo- 
sition penés, and in the plural of Greek nouns, as hér6éés, lam- 
padés. 

os is short in compds, impds; in the Greek nominative ending, as 
barbitds ; also, in the old nominative ending of the second oe 
as servds (later servus). 

is in plural cases is long, as in bonis, nébis, v6bis, omnis 
(accusative plural). 

is is long in fis, sis, vis (with quivis, etc.), velis, malis, n6lis ; 
in the second person singular of the fourth conjugation, as audis 
(where it is the stem-vowel); and sometimes in the forms in -eris 
(perfect subjunctive), where it was originally long. 

us is long (by contraction) in the genitive singular and nominative, 
accusative, and vocative plural of the fourth declension; and in nouns 
of the third declension having & (long) in the stem: as, virtiis (-iitis), 
inciis (-tidis). But peciis, -tidis. 

10. Of other final syllables, those ending in a consonant, except -c, 
are short. Thus, amat, amattir; but, istiic, aléc. 

EXCEPTIONS. d6néc, fac, néc, sometimes hic; aér, aethér, cratér, 
lién, splén. 





1 The quantity of the stem-vowel may be seen in the genitive singular, 


308 Prosody: Quantity. [$§ 349, 350, 


3. Penultimate Syllables. 


849. A noun or adjective is said to zxzcrease, when in 
any case it has more syllables than in the nominative sin- 
gular. 

A verb is said to increase, when in any part it has more 
syllables than in the stem. Thus, am4-tis (stem, améa-), 

tegi-tis (stem, tege-), capi-unt (stem, capi-). 
In such words as stellarum, corpdris, amAtis, tegitis, the penul- 
timate syllable is called the zzcrement.1 In itin€ribus, amavéritis, 
the syllables marked are called the first, second, and third increments 
of the noun or verb. 


Nore. — In such words as Itippiter, I6vis; senex, sénis, the syllables whose 
vowel-quantity is marked are called increments. These forms must be referred to 
lost nominatives from the same stems (cf. §§ 60, 61, foot-note). So itineribus has 
really only two increments as from titinus, 


350. In increments of Nouns and Adjectives, a and o 
are generally Jong; e, i, u, y, generally skort: as, — 

aetds, aetatis; honor, honGris; servos, servGrum; opus, opé- 
ris; carmen, carminis; murmur, murmiiris; pecus, peciidis; 
chlamys, chlamydis. Exceptions are: — 

a: short in baccar (-aris), h6par (--Atis), iubar (-dris), lar (-laris), 
mas (m&ris), nectar (-dris), par (paris), sal (salis), vas (vadis), 
daps (dapis), fax (facis), anthrax (-dcis). 

o: short in neuters of the third declension (except 6s, Gris): as, 
corpus (-dris); also in arbor (-dris), scrobs (scrdbis), ops (Spis), 
bis (bdvis), memor (-Sris), Iippiter (Idvis), Hector (-6ris), 
and compounds of -piis (as, tripiis, -pédis). 

e: longin increments of fifth declension: as, diés, diéi; also in hérés 
(-6dis ), 16x (légis), locuplés (-6tis), mercés (Edis), plébs (plébis), 
quiés (-8tis), réx (régis), vér (véris), cratér (Eris). But see § 347. 2. 

i: long in most nouns and adjectives in ix: as, félicis, radicis 
(except filix, nix, strix) ; also in dis (ditis), glis (gliris), lis (itis), 
vis (virés), Quirites, Samnités. 

u: long in forms from nouns in -iis: as, paltis, paliidis; tellis, tel- 
laris; virtiis, virtiitis; also in lix, licis; [frix], frigis; fir, firis. 





1 The rules of Increment are purely arbitrary, as the syllables are long or short . 
according to the proper quantity of the Stem or of the formative terminations. The 
quantity of noun-stems appears in the schedule of the third declension (see § 67) ; 
and the quantity of inflection-endings is seen under the various inflections, where 
it is better to learn it, For quantities of Greek stems, see § 63. 


§§ 351, 352.] Penultimate Syllables. 399 


351. In the increment of Verbs the characteristic 
vowels are as follows :— 

1. In the first conjugation 4: as, amare, amatur, 

2. In the second conjugation 6: as, monére, monétur. 

3. In the third conjugation 6, 1: as, tegére, tegitur. 

4. In the fourth conjugation I: as, audire, auditur. 

EXCEPTION. d6 and its compounds have 4: as, dare, circumdabat. 

a. In other verbal increments (not stem-vowels) — 

a is always long: as, mone@ris, tegamus. 

e is long: as, tegébam, audiébar. 

NOTE. — But 6 is short before -ram, -rim, -r6; in the future personal endings 
-béris, -bére; and sometimes in the perfect Srunt (as i pcg, comae,.- 
En. ii. 774). 

i is long in forms which follow the analogy of the fourth conjugation: 
as, petivi, lacessitus (in offers short: as, monitus); also in the 
subjunctive present of esse and velle (simus, velimus) ; and (rarely) 
in the endings -rimus, -ritis. It is short in the future forms amabitis, 
etc. 

o is found only in imperatives, and is always long: as, monét6, etc. 

u is short in stimus, voliimus, quaestimus ; in the Supine and its 
derivatives it is long: as, solitirus. 

b. Perfects and Supines of two syllables lengthen the first syllable: 
as, itivi, iitum (itiv6), vidi, visum (vided) ; fiigi (ftigis). 

EXCEPTIONS. bibi, dédi, fidi, scidi, stéti, stiti,.tuili;— citum, 
datum, itum, litum, quitum, ratum, riitum, satum, situm, statum. 
In some compounds of st6, statum is found (long), as pr6statum. 

c. In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short; 
the following syllable is, also, usually short: as, cécidi (ckd6d), didici 
(discS), ptiptigi (pung6), ciicurri (curr6é), tétendI (tendS), 
mdmordi (mordeS). But cécidi from caedé, pepédi from pédé. 


352. The following terminations are preceded by a long 
vowel. 

I. -al, -ar: as, vectigal, pulvinar. 

EXCEPTIONS. animal, capital, itibar. 

2. -brum, -crum, -trum: as, lavacrum, déliibrum, vératrum. 

3. -d6, -ga, -g6: as, formid6, auriga, imag6. 

EXCEPTIONS. cadd6, divid6, 6d6, mddo, sdlidé, spads, trépidé ; 
caliga, fliga, téga, pliga; Aag6, tégd6, nég6, rég6, harp&gé, ligé, 
lég6. So &gd. 

4. -le, -les (-lés), -lis: as, ancile, miles, criidélis, hostilis. 


400 Prosody: Quantity. [$§ 352, 353, 


EXCEPTIONS. malé; inddlés, stibdlés ; gracilis, htimilis, similis, 
st&rilis ; and verbal adjectives in -ilis: as, ddcilis, facilis, terribi- 
lis, Am4Abilis. 

5. -ma, -men, -mentum: as, poéma, flimen, iimentum. 

EXCEPTIONS. anima, lacrima, victima; tamen, coliimen; with 
régimen and the like from verb-stems in e-. 

6. -mus, -nus, -rus, -sus, -tus, -neus, -rius; as, extrémus, stipi- 
nus, oct6ni, sévérus, fimGsus, péritus, sénarius, extraneus. 

EXCEPTIONS. (a.) i before -mus: as, finitimus, maritimus (except 
bimus, trimus, quadrimus, opimus, mimus, limus); and in super- 
latives (except Imus, primus): also, ddmus, hiimus, némus, cala- 
mus, thalamus. 

(d.) i before -nus: as in crastinus, fraxinus, etc. (except divinus, 
matitinus, vespertinus, répentinus); acinus, Asinus, cOminus, 
_ cSphinus, minus, ddéminus, facinus, fraxinus, prétinus, termi- 
nus, vaticinus; also, manus, 6ceanus, platanus; génus, Vénus. 
So 5 in bdnus, Snus, sdnus, tdnus. 

(¢c.) & before -rus (-ra, -rum): as, mérus, hédéra (except pr6cé- 
rus, sincérus, sévérus). In like manner, barbarus, chdrus, ntirus, 
pirus; sdtira, amphodra, ancora, l¥yra, pyra, purpitira; forum, 
supparum, garum, parum. 

(d.) latus, métus, vétus, anhélitus, digitus, servitis, spiritus ; 
qudtus, tdtus; arbiitus, habitus, and the like. 

7. -na, -ne, -nis: as, carina, mane, inanis. 

EXCEPTIONS. advéna, angina, ddmina, fémina, machina, 
mina, géna, pagina, patina, sarcina, triitina, and compounds with 
-gena; béne, sine; canis, cinis, itivénis. 

8. -re, -ris, -ta, -tis: as, altare, salitaris, ménéta, immitis. 

EXCEPTIONS. mare, hildris, rdta, ndta, s&tis, sitis, pdtis, and 
most nouns in -ita. 

g. -tim. -tum, and syllables beginning with v: as, privatim, 
quercétum, Oliva. 

EXCEPTIONS. affatim, statim; nivis (nix); brévis, gravis, 
lévis (ight); ndvus, ndvem; and several verb roots (as, itivé, 
faved) ; also, Svis, bévis, I5vis. 

10. -dex, -lex, -mex, -rex, -dix, -nix: and the numeral enJings 
-ginti, -ginta: as, itiidex, flex, radix, viginti, triginta. 

EXCEPTIONS. ctilex, silex, riimex. 


353. The following terminations are preceded by a short 
vowel : — 


§§ 353, 354.] Penultimate Syllables. 401 


I. -cus, dus, -lus: as, riisticus, calidus, gladidlus. 

EXCEPTIONS. Spdcus, Amicus; anticus, apricus, ficus, mend!- 
cus, posticus, pitidicus; fidus, nidus, sidus; and i before -dus: 
as, criidus, niidus ; 6 before -lus, as phasélus (except gélus, scélus) ; 
Asilus; liicus. 

2. -n6d, -nor, -r6, -ror, in verbs: as, destin6, criminor, gérd, 
quéror. 

EXCEPTIONS. divinG, festind, prépin6, saginG, Spinor, inclin6 ; 
déclar6, spérG, spird6, 6rd, dtiro, miror. 

3. -ba, -bG, -pa, -pS: as, faba, bib6, ltipa, crépé. 

EXCEPTIONS. gléba, scriba; biib6, niib6, scrib6; papa, piipa, 
ripa, scGpa, stiipa; cap6, rép6é, stips6. 

4. -tas (in nouns), -ter and -tus (in adverbs): as, civitas, forti- 
ter, pénitus, 

5. -culus, -cellus, -lentus, -tiid6: as, fascictilus, Scellus, lict- 
lentus, magnitids. 


354. Rules for the quantity of Derivatives are :— 

a. Forms from the same STEM have the same quantity: as, 4m6, 
Amavisti; génus, géneris. 

EXCEPTIONS. I. b6s, lar, mas, par pés, sal, vis—also arbés 
— have a long vowel in the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short 
(cf. genitive bévis, etc.). 

2. Nouns in -or, genitive -Gris, have the vowel shortened before the 
finalr; as, hondr. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that 
in Plautus and inscriptions these nominatives are often found long.) 

3. Many verb-forms with vowel originally long shorten it before final -r 
or -t: as, amér, dicerér, amét (compare amémus), dicerét, audit, fit. 


NOTE. — The final syllable in -t of the perfect seems to have been originally 
long, but to have been shortened under this rule. 


4. A few long stem-syllables are shortened, apparently under the 
influence of accent: as, Acer, Acerbus. So dé-i&ré and pé-i&ré, weak- 
ened from iiré. 

4. Forms from the same Root often show inherited variations of 
quantity (see § 10): as, dicd (cf. mdledicus), diicd (diicis), fid6 
(perfidus), v6cis (v6cS6), légis (1égG). 

¢. COMPOUNDS retain the quantity of the words which compose 
them: as, oc-cid6 (c4dG), oc-cidé (caedS), in-iquus (aequus),. 

d. Greek words compounded with zpé have o short: as, préphéta, 
préldgus. Some Latin compounds of pré have o short: as, prdficis- 
cor, préfiteor. Compounds with né vary: as, néfas, n&ég6, néqued, 
néquis, néquam, 


402 _ Prosody: Rhythm. [§ 355, 


CuapTer I].— Rhythm. 


NOTE. — The essence of Rhythm in poetry is the regular recurrence of syllables 
pronounced with more stress than those intervening. To produce this effect in its 
perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress, 
But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacri- 
ficed somewhat to the necessary length of the words; and, on the other hand, the 
words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the 
proper intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in 
different degrees; one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another 
the pronunciation of the words. 

The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, 
in which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other 
hand,—as in the Saturnian and Fescennine verse,—was not so restricted.- But 
the purely metrical forms were afterwards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted — 
the native forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do fol- 
lows for the most part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words 
(like music) into measures of equal times, technically called Feet. ‘The strict 
rhythm was doubtless more closely followed in poetry that was sumg than in that 
which was declaimed or intoned. In neither language, however, is the time per- 
fectly preserved, even in single measures; and there are some cases in which the 
regularity of the time between the ictuses is disturbed. 

The Greeks and Romans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time 
required for their pronunciation, a dong syllable having twice the metrical value of a 
short one. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length, 
or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous 
shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in 
singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables 
that are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the 
time of three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced 
in less than their proper time, though doubtless always distinguishable in time from 
one short (see § 355. ¢c, @). Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have 
been slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases 
_ the apparent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause 
takes the place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the meas- 
ure, This could, of course, take place only at the end of a word: hence the impor- 
tance of Czesura and Dizresis in prosody (see § 358). 


1. Measures. 
355. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound 
into MEASURES or FEET. 
The most natural division of musical time is into meas- 
ures consisting of either two or three equal parts. But the 
ancients also distinguished measures of five equal parts. 


- 





7 §§ 355, 356. | Measures. 403 


REMARK.— The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of voice on 
one or the other part of the measure. ‘This stress is called the ictus (deaf), or 
metrical accent (see § 358). 


a. The unit of length in Prosody is ome short syllable. This is 
called a Mora. It is represented by the sign u, or in musical nota- 
tion by the guaver (?). 


6. A long syllable is regularly equal to two more, and is represented 
by the sign _., or by the crochet (?) . 

c. A long syllable may be Jrotracted, so as to occupy the time of 
three or four more. Such a syllable, if equal to three ore, is repre- 
sented by the sign _ (or *); if equal to four, by 4 (or g s 


a. A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take practically the time 
of a short one. Such a syllable is sometimes represented by the sign >. 

e. A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one 
mora. 

f. A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of 
verses, to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indi- 
cated by the sign /\; one of two more@ by the sign X.. 

g. One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper 
beginning of the measure. Such syllables are called an ANACRUSIS or 
prelude.» 

The anacrusis is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the 
measure. 


356. The measures most frequently employed in Latin 
verse, together with their musical notation, are the follow- 
ing :— 

a. TRIPLE OR UNEQUAL MEASURES (#).? 
. TROCHEE (4uU = f fp): as. régts. 
lampsus (U4 =f f): as, diicés. 


3. TRIBRACH® (4 UU = ppp): as, himints. 


Lal 


&% 





1 The same thing occurs in modern poetry, and in modern music any unac- 
cented syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, z.e. they make an 
incomplete measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. 
The ancients seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belong- 
ing to the following accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure, 
Thus it would seem that the original form of Indo-European poetry was iambic 
in its structure, or at least accented the second syllable rather than the first. 

2 Called diplasic, the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2 to 1. 

8 Not found as a fundamental foot, but only as the resolution of a Trochee or 
lambus. 


404 


Prosody: Rhythm. [§ 356. 


6. DOUBLE OR EQUAL MEASURES (#). 


4 
+DACTYL (luau = r e one as, consilis. 


2. ANAPAEST (VU VU 4= z, f): as, mOnitos. 
3. SPONDEE (4%. = id fd: as, réges. 
x c. SIX-TIMED MEASURES (}). 
I. IONIC @ ma@iore (_ __ uu ar f Pf) : as, conféecérat. 
2. IONIC & minore (UU Sues re r °) : as, rétulissent. 
3. CHORIAMBUS (_UvU _ wif eq p) : as, contilérant. 
d. QUINARY OR HEMIOLIC! MEASURES (8). 
1. CRETIC BOGE ght ato E p>: as, consiilés. 
2. P&ON primus (_U UY =f © ©): as, consilibis. 
3. PHON guartus (UV UU =f e ‘g f): as, itinért. 
4. BaccHIus CF loge vag # r p): as, dmicos. 
é. Several compound measures are mentioned by the grammarians, 
viz., Antibacchius (_._. u), Proceleusmatic (4 U UU), the 2d and 


3d Peon, having a long syllable in the 2d and 3d places, with three 
short ones; Ist, 2d, 3d, and 4th Z4ctritus, having a short syllable in 
the Ist, 2d, 3d, and 4th places, with three long ones. None of them, 
however, are needed to explain rhythmically all the forms of ancient 
verse. 


I: 


Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy the 


same time in the measure, but may be contracted or prolonged to suit 
the series in which they occur. They are then called zrrational, 
because the thesis and arsis do not have integral ratios. Such are: — 


IRRATIONAL SPONDEE: _ > = ‘ Js 


Cycitic DACTYL: =U 


ee \ (or nearly ae BN o> 





1 Called Aemiolic, the two parts being in the ratio of 1 to 14, or of 3 to 2. 








¥§ 356, 357.] Measures. 405 
CycLtic ANAPAST: = the same reversed. 
IRRATIONAL TROCHEE: _>= | p- 
og e 


NoTE.— Of feet and combinations of feet (sometimes extending to an entire 
verse, and controlled by a single leading accent), the following are recognized, 
assuming § to be the unit of musical time : — 


10 12 15 16 18 20 25 
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 


Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or Chant, with instru- 
mental accompaniment; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing. It 
must be borne in mind that in ancient music—which in this differs widely from 
modern—the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. 
The lyric poetry was to be sung; the poet was musician and composer, as well as 
author. To this day a poet is said conventionally to “sing.” 

Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the Verse gives us 
the exact ¢ime, though not the ¢uze, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, 
however, as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied 
according to certain laws of so-called “ Rhythmic,” as will be explained below. In 
reading ancient verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the 
relative length of syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the meas- 
ure; and to remember that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, 
though the words should be distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Do 
not scam, but read metrically. 


357. In many cases measures of the same time may be 
substituted for each other, a long syllable taking the place 
of two short ones, or two short ones the place of one long 
one. 


In the former case the measure is said to be contracted ; 
in the latter, to be resolved. Thus:— 


a. A Spondee (____) may take the place of a dactyl (_ U VU) or an 
anapest (. ~ _); and a Tribrach (VU U VU) may take the place of a 
Trochee (__V) or an Iambus (VU __). The optional substitution of 
one long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign Wu. 

6. Another form of dactyl when substituted for a trochee is repre- 
sented thus, _ 2. 

A spondee, similarly substituted for a trochee, is represented 
thus, >. 

c. When a long syllable having the Ictus (§ 358. @) is resolved, the 
ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables; but for 
convenience the mark of accent is placed on the first: as, — 


nfinc expériar | sftne aceto | tfbi cdr acre in | péctore. — Bacch. 405. 


406 Prosody: Rhythm. [§ 358 


2. The Musical Accent. 


358. That part of the measure which receives the s¢vess 
of voice (the musical accent) is called the Tursis; the 
unaccented part is called the Arsis.! 


a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the lctus 
(deat). It is marked thus: 2 u u. 

6. The ending of a word within a measure is called Ca@sURA. 
’ When this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called tHe Czesura of 
the verse, and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm. 

¢. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure in 
Prosody is called DL&REsIS. 





1 The Thesis signifies properly, the putting down (0éo1s, from TlO@nut) of the foot 
in beating time, in the march or dance (“downward beat”), and the Arsis, the 
raising (&pots, from delpw) of the foot (“upward beat”), By the Latin grammarians — 
these terms were made to mean, respectively, the ending and beginning of a meas- 
ure. By a misunderstanding which has prevailed till recently, since the time of 
Bentley, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in 
accordance with their ancient meaning, as has now become more common, This 
metrical accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes the essence 
of the rhythm of poetry as distinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept 
in mind. 

The error mentioned arose from applying to trochaic and dactylic verse a 
definition which was true only of iambic or anapeestic. 


wpe, ww ee eee ee wee rere 


§ 359.] - The Verse. . 407 


Cuapter III].— Verszfication. 
1. The Verse. 


359. A single line of poetry —that is, a series of meas. 
ures set in a recognized order —is called a VERSE.} 


NOTE.— Most of the common verses originally consisted of two series (hemi- 
stichs), but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic verse 
by the Digresis, in Dactylic Hexameter by the Cesura, 

a. A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called CATALECTIC, 
that is, having a pause to fill the measure; when the end syllable 
is not lacking, the verse is called ACATALECTIC, and has no such 
pause. 

b. To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to 
the rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion 
(scansi6, from scand6, a climbing or advance by steps). 

REMARK.—In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve 
the measure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse 
the words themselves, as is often done in scanning. 

c. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless 
an interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with 
a vowel or with h. This is called ELIsion (druzsing).? 

In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, 
however, they should be sounded lightly. 

REMARK.— Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synaloepha 
(smearing). 

Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the next verse begins with 
a vowel; this is called Synapheia (d:nding). 





1 The word Verse (versus) signifies a turning back, i.e. to begin again in like 
manner, as opposed to Prose (frdrsus or prdversus), which means straight ahead. 

2 The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is some- 
times adopted in English, particularly in the older poets: as,— 


T’ inveigle and invite th’ unwary sense. — Comus, 538. 


In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s, often loses this letter even before 
a consonant (cf. § 13. 4): as,— 


senio confectu* quiéscit.— Hnnius (C. M. 14). 


408 Prosody: Versification. [§§ 359-62, 


d. A final -m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like man- 
ner when the next word begins with a vowel or h:? this is called 
ECTHLIPSIS (sgucezing out): as,— 

monstr«™ horrend#™, informé, ingéns, cui limen ademptum. 
— £in. iii. 658. 

Final -m has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression 
before the initial vowel of the following word was easy. 


REMARK.— The monosyllables d6, dem, spé, spem, sim, st6, stem, qui 
(plural) are never elided; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic verse. Elision 
is often evaded by skilful collocation of words. 


é. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has 
a special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is 
called Hiatus (gaping). 

The final vowel is sometimes shortened in such cases. 

f- A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a 
pause :? it is then said to be long by Diastolé: as, — 

nostror™ obruimur, — oriturque miserrima caedes. 
g. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short 


(syllaba anceps). 
FORMS OF VERSE. 


360. A verse receives its name from its dominant or 
fundamental measure: as, Dactylic, lambic, Trochaic, Ana- 
pestic; and from the number of measures (single or 
double) which it contains: as, Herameter, Tetrameter, 


Trimeter, Dimeter. 


REMARK.— Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapeestic verses are measured not by 
single feet, but by pairs (dipodia), so that six lambi make a 7rimeter, 


361. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite num- 
ber of verses ranged in a fixed order. 

Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet: as, 
Sapphic (from Sappho), Adcatc (from Alczeus), Archilochian 
e(from Archilochus), Horvatian (from Horace), and so on. 


1. Dactylic Hexameter. 
362. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists 
theoretically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus :— 


1 Hence a final syllable in -m is said to have no quantity of its own—its vowel, 
in any case, being either elided or else made long by Position. 

2 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found 
being caused by the retention of an originally long quantity. 





§ 362.] Dactylic Hexameter. 409 


ZS erevGrixtilvewulaueitvwvwtoe 


or in musical notation as follows :— 


IPCPIPCPIPICPIPCPIPCPIee I 


a. For any one of the feet, except the fifth, a spondee may be subs 
stituted, and must be for the last. 

Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth place; the verse is then called 
spondaic. Thus in Ecl. iv. 49 the verse ends with incrémentum. 

NOTE. — In reality the last foot is a trochee standing for a dactyl, but the final 
syllable is not measured, and the foot is usually said to be a spondee. 

5. The hexameter has always one frincifal cesura — sometimes 
two — akmost always accompanied by a pause in the sense. 

The principal czsura is usually after the thesis (less commonly 7 
the arsis) of the third foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense 
and rhythm. 

It may also be after the thesis (less commonly zu the arsis) of the 
fourth foot. In this case there is often another casura in the second 
foot, so that the verse is divided into three parts: as, — 

parté f& | rox |] ar | densque dcii | lis || et | sibila | colla. ~x. v. 277. 

REMARK.— Often the only indication of the principal among a number of 
czesuras is the break in the sense. 

A czesura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine, A 
ceesura occurring after the second syllable of a foot is called feminine (as in the: 
fifth foot of the 3d and 4th verses inc). A caesura may also be found in any foot 
of the verse, but a proper ce@sural pause could hardly occur in the first or sixth. 

When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a dizeresis) is sometimes 
improperly called ducolic cesura, from its frequency in pastoral poetry. 

¢. The introductory verses of the A®neid, divided according to the 
foregoing rules, will appear as follows. The principal caesura in each 
verse is marked by double lines : — 

Arma vilrumqué ca|no || Troliae qui | primus ab | oris 
Italijam fa|to profu] gus || La|vinzaqué | venit 

litora, | mult jlle | et ter|ris || iac|tatus &t | alto 

vi supé|rum sae|vae || mémd|rem Iu|nonis ob | iram; 
multa quo|qué et bel|lo pas|sus || dum | condérét | urbém, 
infer|retqué dé|os Lati]6, |] génus | undé La|tinum, 
Alba|niqué pa|trés, || at|que altae | moenia | Romae. 

The feminine cesura is seen in the following : — 

Dis géni|ti poti|eré: || té]nent médi|¢ omnia | silvae.— x. vi. 131. 

NoTE.— The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse : — 

“ Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward, 
Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired A£thiop people, 


Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver, 
_Skilful, but feeble of heart; for they know not the lords of Olympus, 


410 Prosody: Verstfication. [§§ 362, 363, 


Lovers of men; neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Athené, 
Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle; 
Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo, 
Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water.” 

— Kingsley’s Andromeda 


2. Hlegiac Stanza. 


363. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two lines, —an 
hexameter followed by a pentameter. 

The Pentameter verse is the same as the hexameter, 
except that it omits the last half of the third foot and 
of the sixth foot. Thus, — 


ie eas. bfteays: | Mad 2a 


Pericerir Per ircele® 


a. The Pentameter verse is thus to be scanned as two. half-verses. 
the second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single 
syllable. 

6. The Pentameter has no regular Czsura; but the first half-verse 
must always end with a word, which is followed by a pause to complete 
the measure.” 

c. The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac 
Stanza :— 

cum subit | illijus tris|tissima | noctis 1]mago 
qua mihi | supre|mum J || tempis in | urbé fulit, 
cum répé|to noc|tem qua | tot mihi | cara ré|liqui, 
labitir | ex Scii|lis A || nunc qudqué | gutta mé|is. 
jam propé | lux adé|rat qua | me dis|cedéré| Caesar 
finibus | extre|mae 7% || iussérat | Ausdni|ae. 
— OVID, 77is?. i. 3. 


? 











NOTE. — The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse 
(of which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which 
must have its own sense complete, It is employed in a great variety of composi- 
tions, — epistolary, amatory, and mournful,—and was especially a favorite of the 
poet Ovid. It has been illustrated in English verse, imitated from the German : — 


“In the Hex|ameter | rises the | fountain’s | silvery | column; 
In the Pen|tameter | aye |] falling in | melody | back.” 





1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five 
feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapzests), as follows :— 


bowwuthe eve bowwsvewed 
2 The time of this pause, however, may be filled by the profraction of the pre- 
ceding syllable, thus: — 


ee hehe as Te Pe a an Oe ae Se 


eae ae 








& 
= 
i 


opniemenlial ek a Sh a gM - 


§§ 364, 365. | * lambic Trimeter. AII 


3. Other Dactylic Verses. 
364. Other dactylic verses or half-verses are occasion- 
ally used by the lyric poets. Thus :— 


a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, forming 
the Akmanian Strophe, as follows : — 


- 


O for|tés pe|idraqué | passi, 
mécum | saepé vilri || nunc | vino | pellité | curas; 
cras in|gens ité|rabimus | aequor. 
— Hor. Od. i. 7 (so 28; Ep. 12). 

- NoTE.— This verse is a single measure, its time being represented by *§ 3F ($ 356. 
J, note). 

6. The Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) consists of half a pen- 
tameter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter to form ~ 
the first Archilochian Strophe: as, — 

diffu| geré nilves || rédé|unt iam | gramina | campis, 
arbori|busqué co| mae; 

mutat | terra vi|cés || et | decres|centia | ripas 
flumina | praetéré| unt.— Hor. Od. iv. 7. 


[For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian Heptameter, alternating 
with iambic trimeter catalectic), see § 372. 11.] 


4. Iambic Trimeter. 

365. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of 
dramatic dialogue. It consists of three measures, each 
containing a double iambus (zamdbic dipody). Thus, — 

Be nt See te oe 
It is seen in the following :— 
iam ie effica|ci do manus | scientiae 
supplex €t o|ro regna per | Proserpinae, 
pér et Dia|nae non moven|da numina, 
pér atqué li|bros carminum | valentium 
defixa cae|lo devoca|ré sidéra, 
Canidza par|cé vocibus | tandem sacris, 
citumqué re|tro retro sol|vé turbinem. — Hor. Zod. 17. 


The last two lines may be thus translated, to show the 
movement in English :— 


“Oh! stay, Canidia, stay thy rights of sorcery, 
Thy charm unbinding backward let thy swift wheel fly!” 


a. The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry, alternating 
with the Dimeter to form the /amdbic Strophe, as follows: — 


412 Prosody: Verstfication. [$ 365. 


béatiis ii}lé qui prdcul | négotiis, 
ut prisca gens | mortalium, 
paterna ru|ra bubis ex|ercet siis, 
solutus om|ni fendré; 
néqueé excita|tur classico | miles trici, 
néqué horrét ijratum maré.— Hor. Zod, 2. 


6. In the Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee (> _.) or its equiv 
alent (a cyclic anapest ~~ or an apparent dactyl > U u (§ 356. /)) 
may be Pegnlanly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody. A Tri- 
brach (U <% wu) may stand for an Jambus anywhere except in the last 
place. 

In the comic poets any of these substitutions may be made in any 
foot except the last: as, —~ 

O liicis al|mé réctdr |] et | caelf déciis! 
qu? alterna cur|ru spatia || flam|mifér? ambiéns, 
illistré lae| tis |] éxséris | terris caput. a 
— SENECA, Here. Fur. 592-94. 
quid quaéris? an|nos || séxagin|ta natus es. 
— TERENCE, Heaut. 62. 
homo s*#: huma|ni || nzhil a m? ali|jéndim puto. 
vel mé moné|re hoc || vél percon|tari puta. 
— Heaut. 77, 78. 

¢. The CHOLIAMBIC (Jame Jambic) substitutes a trochee for the last 

iambus: as, — 
Wise ited St ected | Ad ache | GeO 
aeque ést béa|tus 4c poe|ma cm scribit: 
tam gatidét in | se, tdmqué s¢ ip|sé miratur. 
— CATULL. xxii. 15, 16. 
d. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows :— 


We cinta d ket decky coh ets Sel 
It is used in combination with other measures (see § 372. 11), and is 
shown in the following : — 
Vulcaniis ar|déns urit of] ficinas.— Hor. Od. i. 4. 


or in English: — 
“On purple peaks a deeper shade descending.” — Sco/d. 


NoTE.— The Iambic Trimeter may be regarded, metrically, as “a single foot” 
(its time being represented by 4#), consisting of three dipodies, and having its 
\ principal accent, probably, on the second syllable of the verse, though this is a 
\matter of dispute. The spondee in this verse, being a substitute for an 1ambus, is 
irrational, and must be shortened to fit the measure of the iambus (represented 


by > _). 


ROPE geome eS OS 


§§ 366, 367.] Other Iambic Measures. 413 


5. Other Iambic Measures. 
366. Other forms of Iambic verse are the following : — 


a. The Iambic TETRAMETER Catalectic (Sefténarius). This cone 
sists of seven iambic feet, with the same substitutions as in Iambic 
Trimeter. It is used in lively dialogue: as, — 

nem idcfrcd arces|sor, nfiptias | quod m? 4dpara[ri sénsit. 
quibus gufdém quam faci[lé pdtiérat | quiésci s? hic | quiésset! 
— TER. Andria, 690, 691. 

The rhythm of the Iambic Septenarius may be thus represented 

according to our musical notation (see p. 403, foot-note 1):— 


ho Re ear ake Oe pes een wy SOS 


sCIFOPEIPEPOIP OP CIP PI 


Its movement is like the following : — 
“Tn goéd king Charles’s gélden days, when Idéyalt¥ no harm meant,” etc. 
— Vicar of Bray. 
é. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Octdndrius). This consists 
of eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in lambic Tri- 
meter. It is also used in lively dialogue: as, — 


| ee Pe 


hocinést huma]num fact# aut in|cept#? hdcinest of|ficifim patris? 
quid fllid est? seit déiim fidem, | quid est, s# héc ndn con|tuméliast ? 
— Andria, 236, 237. 
¢. The Iambic DimeTer. This may be either acatalectic or cata- 
lectic. 
1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It 
is used in combination with some longer verse (see § 365. 2). 
2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic 
feet. It is used only in choruses: as, — 
quondm criien|ta Maénas, 
praecéps 4m6|ré saévo, 
rapitir qudd im| poténti 
facinds parat | firoré? — SEN. Medea, 850-853. 


6. Trochaic Verse. 
867. The most commén form of Trochaic verse is the 
Tetrameter catalectic (Sept?narius), consisting of four 


dipodies, the last of which lacks a syllable. It is repre- 
sented metrically thus, — 


414 Prosody: Versification. [sg 367, 368 


4 Go STS Se PIU a I SA 
or in musical notation, 


erorcirercirerciret-| 


&d t? advenio, spém, salitem, || c6nsiliv™ atixiliv éxpeténs. 
— TER. Ana’. ii. 18. 
In English verse : — 


“Tell me not in mournful numbers life is but an empty dream.” 
— Longfellow. 


a. The spondee and its resolutions can be substituted only in the 
even places; except in comic poetry, which allows the substitution in 
any foot but the last: as, — 

{tidew habet peta|s«# fic vestitum: | tam cOnsimilist | Atque ego. 
sfira, pés, sta|tiira, tonsus, | dculi, nasum, | vél labra, 
malae, mentum, | barba, collus; | tétus! quid ver] bis opust? 
si tergum ci] catricdsum, | nzhfl hoc similist | sfmilius. 
— PLaut. Amphitr. 443-446. 


&. Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, 
in combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines: 
as, — 

non ebur ne| qué atreum. [Dimeter Catalectic.] 


mea reni|det {in domo|la ciinar. [Iambic Trimeter Catalectic.] 
— Hor. Od. ii. 18. 


7. Mixed Measures. 


NoTE. — Different measures may be combined in the same verse in two different 
ways. Either (1) a series of one kind is simply joined to a series of another kind 
(compare the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modern music) ; or (2) single 
feet of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case 
these odd feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrationa/ 
(see § 356, Note). 

When enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a 
change of rhythm; when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the 
indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry. 


368. The following verses, combining different rhyth- 
mical series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry :— 
1. GREATER ARCHILOCHIAN (Dactylic Tetrameter; Trochaic 
Tripody) :— 
foes | eo Loco loot wd Uda 
solvitir | acris hi]ems gra| ta vicé || veris | et Fa] voni.— Hor. Od. i. 4. 


NOTE. — It is possible that the dactyls were cyclic; but the change of measure 
seems more probable, 


§§ 368-70. | Logawdic Verse. 415 


2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic (Dactylc Pen- 
themim) ; Iambic Dimeter: — 
a Nak GPS NAA cee BF hy WI eek | Ree WP ee 
scribéré | versici| los || amoré per|culsum iuvat.— id. ZP, 11. 


8 Logacedic Verse. 


369. Trochaic verses containing in regular prescribed 
positions, irrational measures or irrational feet, are called 
Locacepic. The principal logacedic forms are : — 


1. Logacedic Tetrapody (four feet) : GLYCONIC. 

2. Logacedic Tripody (three feet) : PHERECRATIC. 

3. Logacedic Dipody (wo feet): this may be regarded as a short 
Pherecratic. 


NOTE. — Irrational measures are those in which the syllables do not correspond 
strictly to the normal ratio of length (see § 355). Such are the /rrational Spondee and 
the Cyclic Dactyl. This mixture of various ratios of length gives an effect approach- 
ing that of prose: hence the name Logacedic (Adyos, 401674). These measures 
originated in the Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans, All the 
Roman lyric metres not belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic 
systems, were constructed on the basis of the three forms given above: viz., Logace- 
dic systems consisting respectively of four, three, and two feet. ‘The so-called 
Logacedic ie consists of five feet, but is to be regarded as composed of two 
of the others. 


370. Each logacedic form contains a single dactyl.t 
which may be either in the first, second, or third place. 
The verse may be catalectic or acatalectic. Thus, — 


~ Glyconic. Pherecratic. 
| POLO en On Pee On ed COD ft Olen Panton mane CODE | 
i. uu lle U/C DIT [wl I 
fi, Cv le VU lw C(I MV Ie) It: 


NOTE. — The shorter Pherecratic (difody), if catalectic, appears to be a simple 
Choriambus (__.uw | — A); and, in general, the effect of the logacedic forms is 
Choriambic, In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin metri- 
cians, and these metres have obtained the general name of CHORIAMBIC, But 
they are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such 
by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin. 
They may be read (scanned), therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read 
them as /ogaedic measures; and that course is followed here, in accordance with 
the most approved opinion on the subject. 





1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyls, 
and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were imi- 
tated by the Romans as distinct metres, 


416 Prosody: Verstfication. [§ 371. 


371. The verses constructed upon the several Logacedic 
forms or models are the following :— 
5. GLYCONIC (Second Glyconic, catalectic) :— 


Iwvl-vv lw l—IP BIE BE IPE IE op | 


Romae | principis | urbijum. 
In English : — 
“ Forms more real than living man.” — Shelley. 


NOTE.—In this and most of the succeeding forms the first foot is always 
irrational in Horace, consisting of an apparent spondee (__ >). 


2. ARISTOPHANIC (/7rst Pherecratic) : — 


I-vul_ui_clip ge leeie ey 


temperat | Ora | frenis. — Hor. 


NOTE. — It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the preceding by - 
protracting the last two syllables: thus, — 


Ive IVICI_AUE“BELPE IPP af 


3. Aponic (First Pherecratic, shortened) : — 
Ive lol BEI PS | 
Terruit | urbem. — Hor. 
pe Se BA sacle NG AHL P«] 
4. PHERECRATIC (Second Pherecratic) :— 
| nO Se, Le TM AMP CIE BOE lf af 


cras donaberis haédo. — Hor. 


Or perhaps : — 





5. LESSER ASCLEPIADIC (Second and First Pherecratic, both cata- 
lectic):— 
Ie>twowvinclwofleivuludAll 
Maécénas atavis édite régibtis. — Hor. 


6. GREATER ASCLEPIADIC (the same, with a Logawdic Dipody inter- 
posed): — 
$e >to Ita [ellwm VIL VI | EBA 
ti ne quaésierfs — scire nefas — quém mihi quém tibi.— “or. 
7. LESSER SAPPHIC (Logawdic Pentapody, with dactyl in the third 
place) : — 
Ieo-U J UL Slow levVILloAl 
fntegér vitaé scelerisque ptirus. — Hor. 


§§ 371, 372.] Metres of Horace. 417 


Or in English: ~ 
“ Brilliant hopes, all woven in gorgeous tissues.” — Longfellow. 
8. GREATER SAPPHIC (Zhird Glycontc; First Pherecratic):— 
Jule > lv lelvulevIiLIicAll 
té deds dr6 Sybarin || cir properés amando. — Hor. 


g. Lesser ALCAIC (Logaedic Tetrapody, two dactvls, two tro- 


chees) :—= 7 
Ivey lwoweleivlwoll 


virginibis puerisque canto. — Hor. 
In English (nearly) : — 
“Blossom by blossom the Spring begins.” — Azalanta in Calydon. 

10. GREATER ALCAIC (Logawdic Pentapody, catalectic, with Ana- 
crusis, and dactyl in the third place, — compare Lesser Sapphic) :— 

loswuliw>pluvliviclAl 
iist«# ét tenécem pr6épositf virim. — or. 

NOTE. — Only the above Logacedic forms are employed by Horace, 

11. PHALECIAN (Logawdic Pentapody, with dactyl in the second 
place) :— 
Ier>IvvlnvirvIiLIcAl 
quaénam té mala méns, misélli Raizddi, 
agit prdecipite” in meds idmbos? — Catwl?. xl. 

In English: — 
“ Gorgeous flowerets in the sunlight shining.” — Longfellow. 


12. GLYCONIC PHERECRATIC (Metrum Satyricum):— 


Mot vu Rav Lie vw 1A 
© Coléma quae cupis |] pénte liidere léngo. — Catull. xvii. 


9. Metres of Horace. 
372. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of 


stanza; these are: — 
1. ALCAIC, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic 
Dimeter with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9)*: as, — 
justv ét tenécem pr6positi virfim 
non civiv™ ardor prava iubéntiim 
non viltus fnstantfs tyranni 
ménte quatit solida neque Atister.— Od. iii. 3. 
(Found in Od. i. 9, 16, 375-205 27, 29; 3ly 345 35.373. te By 3, Se-%y O Es 
13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 205 ili. 1, 2, 3, 4) 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 293 iv. 4,9, 14,15.) — 


1 The figures refer to the foregoing list (§ 371). 








418 Prosody: Verstfication. [§ 372. 


NOTE. — The Alcaic Strophe was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes 
thirty-seven are in this form.! It is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza. The 
verses were formerly described as, 1, 2. spondee, bacchius, two dactyls; 3. spondee, 
bacchius, two trochees; 4. two dactyls, two trochees. 


2. SAPPHIC (minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and 
one Adonic (3): as,— 

idm satis terrfs nivis &tque dfrae 

grandinis misit pater ét rubénte 

déxter& sacras iaculatus arcés 
térruit drbem.— Od. i. 2. 

(Found in Od. i. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16; 
iii, 8, 11, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27; iv. 2,6, 11. Carm. Sec.) 

NOTE. — The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, 
and was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five 
Odes— more frequently than any other except the Alcaic. The Lesser Sapphic 
verse was formerly described as consisting of a Choriambus preceded by a trochaic 
dipody and followed by a bacchius, 

3. SAPPHIC (major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one - 
Greater Sapphic (8): as, — 

Lydia dic, per 6mnes 
té deds or6, Sybarin ciir properfs amando. — Od. i. 8. 


4. ASCLEPIADEAN I. (minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiadics 
(5) ; gs DE | ms Ld , , 2 
éxegi monumént#™ aére perénnitis 
régalique sitii— pyramid#™ Altifis. — Od. iii. 30. 
(Found in Od. i. 1; iii. 30; iv. 8.) 


5. ASCLEPIADEAN II., consisting of one Glyconic (1) and one 
Lesser Asclepiadic (5): as, — 
N&vis quaé tibi créditém 
débes Virgiliim, — finibus Atticis 
réddas incolumém, precér, 
ét servés animaé — dimiditim meaé. — Od. i. 3. 


(Found in Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 363 iii. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; iv. I, 3.) 
6. ASCLEPIADEAN III., consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadics (5) 
and one Glyconic (1): as, — 

Quis désfderi6é sft pudor aft mods 

tam cari capitis? — praécipe lfigubrés 

cantus, Mélpomené, — cuf liquidam patér 

v6cem cim cythar& dedit. — Od. i. 24. 
(Found in Od. i. 6, 15, 24, 333 fi. 123 fii. 10, 163 iv. 5, 12.) 





1 See the Index below (pp. 420, 421). 


$ 372. ] Metres of Horace. 419 


7. ASCLEPIADEAN IV., consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5), 
‘one Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (1): as, — 


6 fons Bandusiaé spléndidiér vitr6, 
dilci digne meré, n6n sine fléribés, 
cras donaberis haédo 
cul frons targida cérnibis. — Od. iii. 13. 


(Found in Od. i. 5, 14, 21, 233 ii. 73 iii. 7, 133 iv. 13.) 


8. ASCLEPIADEAN V. (major), consisting of Greater Asclepiadics 
(6): as, — 
téi né quaésierfis — scfre neffs ! — quém mihi, quém tibf 
finem di dederint — Leficonoé — néc Babyléniés 
téntaris numerés. — Od. i. 11. 


(Found in Od. i, 11, 18; iv. 10.) 


g. ALCMANIAN, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (§ 362) alternating 
with Tetrameter (§ 364. a). (Od. i. 7, 28; Epod. 12.) 

10. ARCHILOCHIAN I., consisting of Dactylic Hexameter ‘alternat- 
ing with Trimeter Catalectic (Dactylic Penthemim, see § 364. 6). 
(Od. iv. 7.) . 

11. ARCHILOCHIAN IV., consisting of a Greater Archilochian 
(heptameter, § 368. 1), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic 
(§ 365. @). The stanza consists of two pairs of verses: as-— 

s6lvitur fcris hiéms grat vice |} Véris ét Favini, 
trahfintque siccas machinae carfnas; 

&c neque idm stabulis gaudét pecus, |] atit arator fgni, 
nec prata canis Albicant prufnis. — Od. i. 4. 


12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see § 365). (Ep. 17.) 
13. Iambic Strophe (see § 365. a). (Ep. I-10.) 
14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter: as, — 
ndx erat, ét cael6 fulgébat lina seréno 
intér minora sidera, 
cfm tu, mign6rfim nimén laesiira dedrum, 
in vérba iurabaés mea.— Zod. 15. (So in Ep. 14.) 


15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (§ 365); as, — 
Altera idm teritir bellfs civilibus aétas, 
sufs et ipsa R6ma viribds ruit. — Zpod. 16, 


16, Verse of Four Lesser Ionics: as, — 


miserar#™ est | neque amori | dare lidum } neque dulci 
mala vino | lavere aut ex|animari | metuentés, — Od. iii. 12. 


420 Prosody: Verstfication. [§ 372. 


17. Iambic Trimeter (§ 365); Dactylic Penthemim (§ 364. 0); 
Iambic Dimeter: as, — 
Pecti nihil mé sicut antea iuvat 


scribere vérsiculos — amore perculstim gravi.— Efod. 11+ 


18. Dactylic Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim 
(§ 364..6): as, — 


‘hérrida témpestas caelfim contrAxit, et {mbrés 
nivésque déductint Iovem: nfinc mare, nfinc siliiae. . . . 
— Epod. 13. 


19..Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see § 
367. 0). 


INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE. 


Lis. I. 
1. Maecenas atavis: 4. 20. Vile potabis: 2. 
2. Iam satis terris: 2. 21. Dianam tenerae: 7, 
3. Sic te diva: 5. 22, Integer vitae; 2. 
4. Solvitur acris hiems: 11. 23. Vitas hinnuleo: 7. 
5. Quis multa: 7. 24. Quis desiderio: 6. 
6. Scriberis Vario: 6. 25. Parcius iunctas: 2, 
7. Laudabunt alii: 9. 26. Musis amicus: 1. 
8. Lydia dic: 3. 27. Natis in usum;: 1. 
g. Vides ut alta: 1. 28. Te maris: 9. 
to. Mercuri facunde nepos: 2. 29. Icci beatis: 1. 
11. Tu ne quaesieris: 8. 30. O Venus: 2. 
12. Quem virum: 2. 31. Quid dedicatum: 1. 
13. Cum tu Lydia: 5. 32. Poscimur: 2. 
14. Onavis: 7. 33. Albi ne doleas: 6, 
15. Pastor cum traheret: 6, 34. Parcus deorum: I. 
16. O matre pulcra: 1. 35. O diva: 1. 
17. Velox amoenum: I, 36. Et thure: 5. 
18. Nullam Vare: 8. 37. Nunc est bibendum; 1 
Ig. Mater saeva: 5. 38. Persicos odi: 2, 
Lis. II. 
1. Motum ex Metello: 1. tr. Quid bellicosus: 1, 
2. Nullus argento: 2, 12. Nolis longa: 6. 
3. Aequam memento: I. 13. Ille et nefasto: 1. 
4. Ne sit ancillae: 2. 14. Eheu fugaces: 1, 
5. Nondum subacta: 1. 15. Iam pauca: 1. 
6. Septimi Gades; 2. 16. Otium divos: 1. 
7. Osaepe mecum: I. 17. Cur me querelis: 1. 
8. Ulla si iuris: 2. 18. Non ebur?: fo. 
g. Non semper imbres: 1 19. Bacchum in remotis: 2, 
Io. 


Rectius vives: 2. 20, Non usitata: 1. 


Se ee re 


§§ 372, 373.] l[ndex to Metres of Horace. 421 

aR. THE +, 

1. Odi profanum: tf. 16. Inclusam Danaén: 6, 

2. Angustam amice: I. 17. Aeli vetusto: 1. 

3. Iustum et tenacem: I, 18. Faune nympharum: 2, 

4. Descende caelo: I. Ig. Quantum distet: 5. 

5. Caelo tonantem: 1. 20. Non vides: 2. 

6. Delicta maiorum: I. 21. O nata mecum: 1. 

7. Quid fles: 7. 22. Montium custos: 2, 

8. Martiis caelebs: 2. 23. Caelo supinas: 1. 

9g. Donec gratus: 5. 24. Intactis opulentior: 5. 

Io. Extremum Tanain: 6, 25. Quo me Bacche: 5. 

tr. Mercuri nam te: 2. 26. Vixi puellis: 1, 

12, Miserarum est: 16, 27. Impios parrae: 2, 

13. O fons Bandusiae: 7. 28. Festo quid: 5. 

14. Herculis ritu: 2. 29. Tyrrhena regum: 1, 

15. Uxor pauperis: 5. 30. Exegi monumentum: 4, 
Lis. IV. 

1. Intermissa Venus: 5. g. Ne forte credas: 1. 

2. Pindarum quisquis: 2. to. O crudelis adhuc: 8. 

3. Quem tu Melpomene: 5. 11. Est mihi nonum: 2, 

4- Qualem ministrum: 1. 12, lam veris comites: 6, 

5. Divis orte bonus: 6, 13. Audivere Lyce: 7. 

6. Dive quem proles: 2. 14. Qua cura patrum: 1. 

7. Diffugere nives: ro. 15. Phoebus volentem: 1, 

8. Donarem pateras: 4. Carmen Saeculare: 2, 
EPODES. 

1. Ibis Liburnis: 13. to, Mala soluta: 13. 

2. Beatus ille: 13. 11. Pecti nihil: 17. 

3. Parentis olim: 13. 12. Quid tibi vis: 9. 

4. Lupis et agnis; 13. 13. Horrida tempestas: 18, 

5. At O deorum: 13. 14. Mollis inertia: 14. 

6. Quid immerentes: 13. 15. Nox erat: 14. 

7. Quo quo scelesti: 13. 16. Altera iam: 15. 

8. Rogare longo: 13. 17. Iam iam efficaci: 12, 

g. Quando repostum: 13. 


ON Ra RINE ET 5 OT 


373. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the 
above-mentioned verses. Thus, — 


a. Glyconics with one Pherecratic (both imperfect) : as, — 
Dia] nae sumiis | in fidé 
puel| lee et puér? | intégri: 
Dia|nam, puér? | intégri 





puel|laequé ca|na|mus.—CaTuLL. 34. 


b. Sapphics, in a series of single lines, closing with an arene? as, —~ 


An ma|gis di|ri trémii | ere | Manés 
Hercu| le? et vi|sum canis | infé|rd6rum 


422 Prosody: Verstfication. [§§ 373, 374. 


fagit | abrup|tis trépi|dus cj tenis? 
fallijmur: lae|te vénit | eccé | vulta, 
quem ti|lit Poe|as; himé|risqué | tela 
gestat | et nO|tas popuallis pha}retras 
Herculis | heres. — SEN. Here. Gt. 1600-6, 


c. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number (id. Here. 
Fur. 830-874, 875-894). 


10. Miscellaneous. 


374. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry: 
viz., —. 

a. ANAPZSTIC verses of various lengths are found in dramatic 
poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted 
for the anapzst: as, — 

hic homost | omni## homi|num prae]cipuds 
volipta|tibis gau|dzisque an|tépdtens. 

ita com|m6dda quae | cupi? é| véniunt, 

quod ago | subit, ad|sécueé | s€quitur: 

ita gau|dzum sup] péditat. — PLAUT. Trin. 1115-19. 


6. BACCHIAC verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets, — very 
rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus, — either in verses of © 
two feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very 
freely, as are all measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be 
resolved, or the molossus (three longs) substituted: as, — 

- multas rés | simit# in | méo cor] dé vorso, 
mult## in cO|gitando | ddlore~ in| dipiscor 
égdmet mé | cog? et ma|cér? et de| fatigo; 
magister | mih? exer|citor Anijmus nunc est. 

— PLAUT. 7rinz. 223-226. 


¢. CRETIC measures occur in the same manner as the Bacchiac, with 
the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete: as, — 
am6r Aami|cus mihi | né fas | unquam. 
his €g0 | dé artibus | gratiam | facio. 
nil go is|t6s mOror | faecéds | mores. —id. 267, 293, 297. 


@. SATURNIAN ‘VERSE. In early Latin is found a rude form of verse, 
not borrowed from the Greek like the others. The rhythm is Iambic 
Tetrameter (or Trochaic with Anacrusis), but the Arsis is often synco- 
pated, especially in the middle and at the end of the verse: as, — 


dabfint | malfim | Metéljli— Il Naévilo po|etae, 


§ 375.] Early Prosody. 423 


11. Early Prosody. 


375. The prosody of the earlier poets differs in several 
respects from that of the later.! 


a. At the end of words s was only feebly sounded, so that it does 
not make Zosztion with a following consonant, and is sometimes cut off 
before a vowel. This usage continued in all poets till Cicero’s time 


(§ 347- €). 
6. The last syllable of any word of two syllables may be made short 


if the first is short. (This effect remained in a few words like puta, 
cavé, valé, vidé; cf. § 348.) Thus, — 

abést (Cis¢. ii. 1. 12); Apud test (7rin. 196); sdrdr dictast (Zn. 157); 

bodnas (Stich. 99); domi d&éaeque (Pseud. 37); domi (A777. 194). 

c. In the same way a long syllable may be shortened when preceded 
by a short monosyllable: as, — 

id &st profect6 (A/erc. 372); Erit et tib? éxoptatum (1727, 101 3 si quide 

hércle (Astz. 414); quid st s? hoc (Andria, 237). 

d. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded.2 Such are 

ille, iste, Inde, tinde, némpe, ésse (?). Thus, — 
€cquis his in aedibust (Bacch. 581). 

é. In some cases the accent seems to shorten a syllable preceding it 
in a word of more than three syllables, as in senéctiti, Syractisae. 

f. At the beginning of a verse many syllables long by position stand 
for short ones: as, — 

idné tu (Pseud. 442); Estne consimilis (Zp7d. v. 1. 18). 

g. The original long quantity of many final syllables is retained. 
Thus ; — 

1. Final -a of the first declension is often long: as, — 

n? ep{stula quide™ filla sit in aédibus (Asin. 762). 

2. Final -a of the neuter plural is sometimes long (though there 
seems no etymological reason for it): as, — 

nfinc et amico | présperabé et | génio med mul | ta bona faciam (Pers. 263). 





1 Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed 
by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the 
influence of accent (which was originally free in its position, but in Latin became 
limited to the penult and antepenult). This tendency was arrested by the study of 
grammar and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages. In 
many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early poets. 

2 Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle or the extent of this irregularity. 


424 Prosody: Versification. [§ 375. 


3. The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem-vowel 
(original r-stems or original s-stems) : as, — 

médo quom dict@ in m? ingerébas 6dium non uxGr eram (Aséz. 927). 

ita m? in pectore Atque corde, facit amér incéndium (J/ere. 500). 

&tque quanto ndx fuisti l6ngidr hac préxuma (Amph. 548). 


4. The termination -es (-itis) is sometimes retained long, as in 
milés, superstés. 
5. All verb-endings in -r, -s, and -t may be retained long where the 
vowel is elsewhere long in inflection: as, — 
régredior audisse mé (Caz. 1023); Atque ut qui fueris et qui nunc (id. 
248); mé nOminat haec (Zfid. iv. 1.8); faciat ut semper (Poen. ii. 
42); infuscabat, amabo (Cretics, Czs¢. i. 21); qui amet (J/erc. 1021); 
ut fit in bello capitur alter filius (Café. 25); tibi sit ad mé revisas 
( Truc. ii. 4. 79). 


h. The hiatus is allowed very freely, especially at a pause in the 
sense, or when there is a change of the speaker.} 





1 The extent of this license is still a question among scholars; but in the present 
state of texts it must sometimes be allowed. 





MISCELLANEOUS, 


KO ee 


1. Reckoning of Time. 


NOTE. — The Roman Year was designated, in earlier times, by the names of the 
Consuls; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City (ad urbe 
condita, anno urbis conditae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period 
corresponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those 
of the Christian era, ¢he year of the city is to be subtracted from 754: €.g. A.U.C. 691 
(the year of Cicero’s consulship) = B.C, 63. 

Before Czesar’s reform of the Calendar (B.C. 46), the Roman year consisted of 
355 days: March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 31 days; Feb- 
ruary having 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this Calendar year was too short 
for the-solar year, the Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion of the Pontifices, 
inserted a month of varying length (ménsis intercalaris) after February 23, and 
omitted the rest of February, The “ Julian year,” by Czesar’s reformed Calendar, 
had 365 days, divided into months as at present, Every fourth year the 24th of 
February (vi. kal. Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month: hence 
the year was called ZBissextilis. The month Quintilis received the name /z/ius 
(July), in honor of Julius Ceesar; and Sextilis was called Augustus (August), in 
honor of his successor, The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the 
adoption of the Gregorian Calendar (A.D. 1582), which omits leap-year three times 
in every four hundred years. 


376. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are 
reckoned as follows :— 


a. The first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends). 


NOTE. — Kalendae is derived from cal&re, ¢o cal/,—the Calends being the 
day on which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata, 
which they did, originally, from actual observation. 


6. On the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the ¢iz~ 
teenth of the other months, were the Idiis (/des), the day of Full Moon. 

¢. On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the 
Jifth of the other months, were the N6nae (/Vones or ninths). 

d. From the three points thus determined, the days of the month 
were reckoned backwards as so many days before the ones, the Jdes, 
or the Calends. The point of departure was, by Roman custom, counted 
in the reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc. This gives 
the following rule for determining the date: — 


426 Miscellaneous. [§ 376. 


If the given date be Calends, add ¢wo to the number of days in the 
month preceding, —if Nones or Ides, add ome to that of the day on 
which they fall,— and from the number thus ascertained subtract the 
given date: thus, — 

viii. Kal. Feb. (33 —8)=Jan. 25. 
iv. Non. Mar. (8—4)= Mar. 4. 
iv. Id. Sept. (14—4)=Sept. ro. 


For peculiar constructions in dates, see § 259. ¢. 
é. The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as thus 
ascertained, are given in the following Table: — 


Fanuary. February. March, April. 

1. KAL. IAN, KAL, FEB, KAL, MARTIAE KAL, APRILES 
2. IV. Non. Ian. Iv. Non, Feb. VI. Non. Mart. Iv. Non. Apr. 
SOE LE ads Nite Ss Ele, Bern: Misa scx tine tit a. a 

4. prid. “ “ prid. “ “ IV. “s “ prid. “ « 

5. NON. IAN, NON. FEB. Ot Oe NON. APRILES 
6, VII. Id. Ian, vill. Id. Feb, prid..* 5 vit. Td, Apr. 
9.78. 85% Wit," NON. MARTIAE Wik? 

nS as a, SO Sg vill. Id. Mart. ae 

9. We “ “ Vv. “ “ VII. “ “ Vv. “ oe 

Io. IV. « “ IV. “ “ VI. ity “ IV. iti “ 

Ty. III, « “ III, a “ ¥, “ “ Ill. ac « 
I2. prid. “ “ rid. “ “ IV. “ “ prid. “ “ 

13. IDUs IAN. IpDUs FEB. W.. *.'.* Ipvs APRILEs. 
14. XIX. Kal. Feb. XVI. Kal, Matias prid. “ . XVIII. Kal. Maids 
15. XVIII. “ | a Tp0s MARTIAE bt Reh a wal 
RO Ve =. Mo KV A 8 XVII. Kal, Aprilis, XVI “ 2 
ae * OS XL ig XVI. = XV. = 
18. XV. iii « Kit: “a * XV. “ “ XIV. “ “ 
OSS: 4 1 pean pene « Paras * SIV. : > Pa ed “ 
se 7 tg ieee lee aaa ag e xi. * - XII. x bs 
2I. XII. “ Ai IX, “ “ ba 8 “ “ Xi. “ ct 
22. xi. “ “ VIII. “ “ Tz “ “ > & “ as 
23. ve “ ae VII. “a “ x “ “ IX: “ “e 
24. IX. a be Vi. “ « 1X. “ “ VIII. “ “ 
Be EET ee dn as a 5 XS ed ne VII. = is 
a ele I . Mit: + vi. . ve. 
BOE Ss ES * 5: OI hag v. = ¥ 
28. Vv. “ “ prid. “ *% Vv. “ « IV. “ tt 
OO OI ata, [prid. Kal Mart. Iv. 44 - III. . is 
go. 11. “ “ in leap-year, the III. = prid. “ “ 
gi. prid. “ “ vi. Kal. (24th) being prid. “ a (So June, Sept., 
(So Aug., Dec.) counted twice.] (So May, July, Oct.) Nov.) 


NOTE, — Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (B.C. 46) is to be found 
not by the above table, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the number of days 
in the month. 


§§ 377-81. ] Measures of Value, ete. 427 


2. Measures of Value, etc. 


377. The money of the Romans was in early times wholly of cop- 
per. The unit was the as, which was nominally a pound in weight, but 
actually somewhat less. It was divided into twelve unciae (oumces). 

In the third century B.C. the 4s was gradually reduced to one-half 
of its original value. In the same century silver coins were introduced, 
—the Déndrius and the Séstertius. The Denarius= Io asses; the 
Sestertius = 24 asses. 


378. The Sestertius was probably introduced at a time when the 
Zs had been so far reduced that the value of the new coin (2% asses) 
was equivalent to the original value of the 4s. Hence, the Sestertius 
(usually abbreviated to IIS or HS) came to be used as the unit of value, 
and nummus, ¢oiz, often means simply séstertzus. As the reduction of 
the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent to 4 asses. 
Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to I0o sesterces. 
The value of these coins is seen in the following table: — 

2% asses = 1 sestertius or nummus (HS), value nearly 5 cents. 
IO asses or 4 sestertii=1denarius. . . “ © aoe 
1000 sestertii=1sestertium. . . + »« . “ $50.00. 

NOTE. — The word séstertius is a shortened form of sémis-tertius, the 
third one, a half. The abbreviation IIS or HS=duo et sémis, 2%, two anda 
half. 

379. The Séstertium (probably originally the genitive plural of 
séstertius) was a sum of money, not a coin; the word is inflected 
regularly as a neuter noun: thus, tria séstertia = $150.00. 

When séstertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centéna milia, 
hundreds of thousands, is to be understood: thus deciéns séstertium 
(decténs HS) = $50,000. 

In the statement of large sums séstertium is often omitted: thus 
sexagiéns (Rosc. Am. 2) signifies, sexagiéns [centéna milia] séstertium 
(6,000,000 sesterces) = $300,000 (nearly). 


$80. In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above 
the number indicates thousands; lines above and at the sides also, 
hundred-thousands. Thus HS. DC. = 600 séstertif 3 HS. DC = 600,000 
séstertit, or 600 séstertia, U.S. [DC]= 60,000,000 séstertit. 


$81. The Roman Measures of Length are the following : — 


12 inches (wmciae) = 1 Roman Foot (és: 11.65 English inches). 
134 Feet = 1 Cubit (cauditum).— 244 Feet = 1 Degree or Step (gradus). 
5 Feet = 1 Pace (passus).— 1000 Paces (mille passuum) = 1 Mile. 


428 


Miscellaneous. 


[$$ 381-84. 


The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. 
The /#gerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman) 
feet long and 120 broad; a little less than 2 of an English acre. 


382. The Measures of Weight are — 


12 unciae (ounces) = one pound (dra, about $ Ib. avoirdupois). 


Fractional parts (weight or coin) are — 


1. (74), uncia. 
2. (4), sextans. 
3. (4, guadrans. 
4. (4), “riéns. 


5. (3s), guencunx. 
6. (4), sémissis. 

7. (7s), Septunx. 
8. (2), déssis. 12. As. 


9. (3), dodrans. 
10. (3), dextans. 
Il. (43), deunz. 


The Talent (¢alentum) was a Greek weight (réXavrov) = 60 hbrae. 


383. The Measures of Capacity are — 


12 cyathi = 1 sextarius (nearly a pint). 

16 sextarii= 1 modius (peck). 

6 sextarii = 1 comgius (3 quarts, liquid measure). 
8 congii = 1 amphora (6 gallons). 


384. The following are some of the commonest abbreviations found 


A., absolvo, antiguo. 

A. U., anno urbis. 

A. U.C., ab urbe condita. 
C., condemnd, comitialis. 
cos., consud (consule). 
_coss., consulés (consulibus). 
D., divus. 

D. D., 26nd dedit. 

D. D. D., dat, dicat, dédicat. 
des., désignatus. 

D. M., a2 manés. 

eq. Rom., egues Romanus. 
F., felius, fastus. 

Ictus., zurisconsultus, 

Id., zdus. 

imp., imperator. 


1.0. M., love optimd maximo. 


K., Kal., Kalendae. 
N., 2epos, nefastus. 
N. L., nom liguet. 


in Latin inscriptions and sometimes in editions of the classic authors. 


P. C., patrés conscripit. 


pl., pléZdzs. 
pont. max., pontifex maximus. 
pop., populus. 


P. R., populus Romanus. 

pr-, praetor. 

proc., proconsul, 

Q. BF. F. Q. S., guod bonum felix 
Saustumque sit. 

Quir., Quzriées. 

resp., réspublica, respondet. 

S., salutem, sacrum, senatus. 

S.C., senatus consultum. 

S.D.P., salutem dicit plurimam. 

S.P.Q. R., Senatus Populusque Ro- 
manus. 

S. V. B. E. E. V., $2 valeés bene est, ego 
valeo. 

pl. tr., ¢ridunus plebis. 

U. (U.R.), uti rogas. 


GLOSSARY 


OF TERMS USED IN GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, AND PROSODY 
pi eegiomenl 


NOTE. — Many of these terms are pedantic names given by early grammarians 
to forms of speech used naturally by writers who were not conscious that they were 
using figures at all—as, indeed, they were not. Thus when one says, “It gave me 
no little pleasure,” he is unconsciously using ZLz¢ofes; when he says, “‘ John went 
up the street, James down,” Aztithesis; when he says, “ High as the sky,” Ayper- 
bole. Many were given under a mistaken notion of the nature of the usage referred 
to. Thus méd and téd (§ 98. c) were supposed to owe their @ to Paragage, 
simpsi its p to Zpenthesis. Such a sentence as “See my coat, how well it fits!” 
was supposed to be an irregularity to be accounted for by Prodepsis. 

Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena which often 
occur; and most of them have a historic interest, of one kind or another, 


385. I. GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 


Anacoluthon: a change of construction in the same sentence, leaving 
the first part broken or unfinished. 

Anastrophe: inversion of the usual order of words. 

Afpodosis: the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protas). 

Archaism: an adoption of old or obsolete forms. 

Asyndeton : omission of conjunctions (§ 208. 4). 

Barbarism: adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms. 

Brachylogy: brevity of expression. 

Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one (§ Io. ¢). 

Ellipsis: omission of a word or words necessary to complete the sense 
(§ 177. note). 

Enallage: substitution of one word or form for another. 

Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or syllable (§ 11. ¢). 

Hellenism: use of Greek forms or constructions. 

Hendiadys (&v 5 dvoiv): the use of two nouns, with a conjunction, 
instead of a single modified noun. 

Hypallage: interchange of constructions. 

flysteron proteron: a reversing of the natural order of ideas. 


This term was applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated 
in language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier and so 
comes first to the mind. This was supposed to be an artificial embellishment 
in Greek, and so was imitated in Latin. It is still found in artless narrative; cf. 
“ Bred and Born in a Brier Bush” (Uncle Remus). 


430 Glossary. 


Metathesis $ transposition of letters in a word (§ 11. @). 

Paragoge: addition of a letter or letters to the end of a word. 

Parenthesis : insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction. 

Periphrasis : a roundabout way of expression (circumlocution). 

Pleonasm: the use of needless words. 

Polysyndeton : the use of an unnecessary number of copulative con- 
junctions. 

Prolepsis: the use of a word in n the clause preceding the one where it 
would naturally appear (anticipation). 
Protasis: a clause introduced by a conditional expression (¢f, when, 
whoever), leading to a conclusion called the Afodosis (§ 304). 
Syncope: omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word 
(§ 11. 3). 

Synesis (constrictid ad sénsum): agreement of words according to the 
sense, and not the grammatical form (§ 182). 

Tmesis; the separation of the two parts of a compound word by other 
words (cutting). 


This term came from the earlier separation of prepositions (originally adverbs) 
from the verbs with which they were afterwards joined; so in per ecastor scitus 
puer, a very fine boy,egad/ As this was supposed to be intentional, it was ignorantly 
imitated in Latin; as in cere- comminuit -brum (Ennius). 

Zeugma: the use of a verb with two different words, to only one of 
which it strictly applies (yoking). 


386. II. RHETORICAL FIGURES. 


Allegory : a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circumstances, 
events, or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth. 
Alliteration: the use of several words that begin with the same sound. 
Analogy: argument from resemblances. | 
Anaphora: the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive 
clauses (§ 344. f). 
Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis: § 344). 
Antonomasia: use of a proper fora common noun, or the reverse: as, — 
sint Maecénatés non deerunt Flacce Maronés, so there be patrons (like 
Maecenas), Poets (like Virgil) w2/? not be lacking. 
illa furia et pestis, that fury and plague (i.e. Clodius); Homéromastix, 
scourge of Homer (i.e. Zoilus). 
Afposiopesis : an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect. 
Catachresis: a harsh metaphor (aéisz6, misuse of words). 
Chiasmus: a reversing of the order of words in corresponding pairs of 


phrases (§ 344. f). 


Glossary. ey 


Climax: a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning. 

Euphemism: the mild expression of a painful or repulsive idea. 

Euphony: the choice of words for their agreeable sound. 

Hyperbaton: violation of the usual order of words. 

Hyperbole: exaggeration for rhetorical effect. 

frony: the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary to 
what is meant. 

Litotes: the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary (§ 209. ¢). 

Metaphor: the figurative use of words, indicating an object by some 
resemblance. 

Metonymy: the use of the name of one thing to indicate some kindred 
thing. 

Onomatopeia: a fitting of sound to sense in the use of words. 

Oxymoron: the use of contradictory words in the same phrase: as, — 

insaniéns sapientia, foolish wisdom. 

Paraleipsis (Praeteritio): artful emphasis by pretended omission. 

Paronomasia: the use of words of like sound. 

Prosopopeia: personification. 

Synchysis: the interlocked order (§ 344. /). 

Synecdoche: the use of the name of a part for the whole, or the reverse. 


387. III. TERMS OF PROSODY. 


Acatalectic: complete, as a verse or a series of feet (§ 359. a). 

Anaclasis: breaking up of rhythm by substituting different measures. 

Anacrusis: the unaccented syllable or syllables preceding a verse 
(§ 355- g)- 

Antistrophe: a series of verses corresponding to one which has gone 
before (cf. strophe). 

Arsis: the unaccented part of a foot (§ 358). 

Basis: a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse. 

Cesura: the ending of a word within a metrical foot (§ 358. 4). 

Catalexis: loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series 
catalectic (incomplete, § 359. @). a 

Contraction: the use of one long syllable for two short (§ 357). 

Correption: shortening of a long syllable, for metrical reasons. 

Dieresis: the coincidence of the end of a foot with the end of a word 
(§ 358. ¢). 

Dialysis: the use of i (consonant) and v as vowels (séliia = silva. 
§ 347. d. Rem.). 

Diastole: the lengthening of a short syllable by emphasis (§ 359. /). 


432 —. Glossary. 


Dimeter : consisting of two like measures. 

Dipody: consisting of two like feet. 

Distich: a system or series of two verses. 

Ecthiipsis: the suppression of a final syllable in -m before a word 
beginning with a vowel (§ 359. 2). | 

Elision: the cutting off of a final before a following initial vowel 
(§ 359. ¢). 

Heptameter : consisting of seven feet. 

Hlexameter : consisting of six measures. 

Hexapody: consisting of six feet. 

Hiatus: the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision (§ 359. é). 

Zctus: the metrical accent (§ 358. a). 

Lrrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time (§ 356. note). 

Logaedic: varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose (§ 369). 

Monometer: consisting of a single measure. 

Mora: the unit of time = one short syllable (§ 355. a). 

Pentameter. consisting of five measures. 

Pentapody: consisting of five feet. 

Penthemimeris: consisting of five half-feet. 

Proatraction: extension of a syllable beyond its normal length (§ 355. ¢). 

Resolution: the use of two short syllables for one long (§ 357). 

Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole (stanza), 
which may be indefinitely repeated. 

Syn@rests : i (vowel) and u becoming consonants before a vowel. 

Synalepha: the same as elision (§ 359. c. Rem.). 

Synapheia: elision between two verses (§ 359. c. Rem.). 

Synizesis: the combining of two vowels in one syllable (§ 347. ¢). 

Syncope: loss of a short vowel. 

Systole: shortening of a syllable regularly long. 

Tetrameter: consisting of four measures. 

Tetrapody: consisting of four feet. 

Tetrastich: a system of four verses. 

Thesis: the accented part of a foot (§ 358). 

Trimeter : consisting of three measures. 

Tripody: consisting of three feet. 

Tristich: a system of three verses. 


APPENDIX. 


eo 


LATIN was originally the language of the plain of Latium, lying 
south of the Tiber, the first territory occupied and governed by the 
Romans. This language, and, together with it, Greek, Sanskrit, Zend 
(Old Persian), the Sclavonic and Teutonic families, and the Celtic, are 
shown by comparative philology to be offshoots of a common stock, 
a language once spoken by a people somewhere in the interior of Asia, 
whence the different branches, by successive migrations, passed into 
Europe and Southern Asia. 

This Parent Speech is called the Indo-European, and the languages 
descended from it are known collectively as the Indo-European Family. 
By an extended comparison of the corresponding roots, stems, and 
forms, as they appear in the different languages of the family, the 
original Indo-European root, stem, or form can in very many cases be 
determined. A few of these forms are given in the grammar for com- 
parison (see, especially, p. 83). Others are here added for further 


PARR a Oe Gre de) NR OO Oe 1 o wv 


illustration : ~— : 
I. CASE Forms (Stem VAK, vozce). 
Inpo-Eur. SANSKRIT. GREEK LATIN. 

Sinc. Nom. _ vaks! vaks by vox 
Gen. vakas vachas émrds vocis 
Dat. vakai vaché él voci 
Acc. vakam vacham bra vocem 
Abl. vakat vachas (gen. or dat.) voce(d) 
Loc. vaki vachi (dat.) (dat.) 
Instr. vaka vacha (dat.) (abl.) 

PLur.Nom.  vakas vachas bres voces 
Gen. vakam vacham omav vocum 
Dat. vakbhyams vagbhy4s opt vocibus 
Acc. vakams vachas bras voces 
Abl. vakbhyams (as dat.) (gen. or dat.) vocibus 
Loc, vaksvas vaksti (dat.) (dat.) 
Instr. § vakbhis vagbhis (dat.) (abl.) 





1To avoid unsettled questions of Comparative Grammar, the stem-vowel is 
here given as @, though the vowel undoubtedly had approached © before the 
separation of the various Indo-European languages from the parent speech. 


434 Appendix. 
2. CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
Invo-Evr. SANSKRIT. GREEK. Latin, 
ade [eka] [eis] [unus] 
2 dva dva 5te duo 
3. «tri tri Tpets trés 
4 kvatvar chatur rérrapes quattuor 
5 kvankva panchan WevTeE quinque 
6 ? shash 34 sex 
7 septm saptan érrd septem 
8 aktam ashtun durd octd 
g navam navan évvéa novem 
10 dekm dasan ddka decem 
12 dvadekm dva-dasan 5é5exa duodecim 
13 tridekm trayo-dasan Tpiocxaldera tredecim 
20 dvideknta vinsati elxoot viginti 
30. trideknta trinsati TpidKovTa. triginta 
100 kntom catam éxatév centum 
3. FAMILIAR AND HOUSEHOLD WoRDs. 
Invo-Evr. SANSKRIT. GREEK. LaTIN. 
Father. patar- pitri- Tathp pater 
Mother. matar- matri- LATnp mater 
Father-in-law. svakura- cvacura- éxupds socer 
Daughter-in-law. snusha- snusha- _ vuds nurus 
Brother. bhratar- bhratri- ¢pdrnp? frater 
Sister. svasar- (?) svasar- [ddedpq] — soror 
Master. pati- pati- wéots potis 
House. dama- dama- dduos domus 
Seat. sadas- sadas- 50s sedeés 
Year. vatas- vatsa- eros vetus (old) 
Field, agra- ajra- dypés ager 
Ox, Cow. gaue goe Bods bos 
Sheep (Ewe). avi- avi- dis ovis 
Swine (Sow). su- sus is, ovs sus 
Yoke. yuga- yuga- duydy jugum 
Wagon. rata- rata- [duata} rota (wheel) 
Middle. madhya- madhya- égos medius 
Sweet. svadu- svadu- Hodds suavis 


The emigrants who peopled the Italian peninsula also divided into 
several branches, and the language of each branch had its own develop- 
ment, until all the rest were crowded out by the dominant Latin. 
These dialects have left no literature, but fragments of some of them 





1 Clansman, 


Appendix. 435 
have been preserved, in inscriptions, or as cited by Roman antiqua 
rians; and other fragments were probably incorporated in that pop- 
ular or rustic dialect which formed the basis of the modern Italian. 
The most important of these ancient languages of Italy were the 
Oscan of Campania, and the Umbrian of the northern districts. 
To these should be added the Etruscan, which is of uncertain origin. 
Some of their forms, as compared with the Latin, may be seen in the 
following : — 


Latin. Oscan, Umprian. LaTIN. Oscan. UmBRIAN 
accinere arkane neque nep 
alteri (loc.) alttrei per perum 
argento aragetud portet portaia 
avibus aveis quadrupedibus peturpursus 
censor censtur quattuor petora petur 
cénsebit — censazet quinque _ pomtis 
contra, F. contrud, N. qui, quis _ pis pis 
cornicem curnaco quid pid 
dextra destru quod pod pod 
dicere deicum (cf. venum-do) cui piei 
dixerit dicust quom pone, pune 
duodecim desenduf rectori regaturei 
extra ehtrad siquis svepis 
facito factud stet stai*t (stai*et) 
fecerit fefacust subvoco subocau 
fertote fertuta sum sum 
fratribus fratrus est i*st 
ibi ip sit set 
imperator embratur fuerit fust fust 
inter anter anter fuerunt fufans 
liceto licitud fuat fuid fuia 
magistro mestru tertium tertim 
medius mefa ubi puf 
mugiatur mugatu uterque puturus pid 
multare moltaum utrique puterei® putrespe 





Fragments ot early Latin are preserved in inscriptions dating back 
to the third century before the Christian era; and some Laws are 
attributed to a much earlier date, —to Romulus (B.c. 750), to Numa 
(B.C. 700) ; and especially to the Decemvirs (Twelve Tables, B.c. 450) ; 
but in their present form no authentic dates can be assigned to them. 
Specimens of these are usually given in a supplement to the Lexicon. 
(See also Cic. De Legibus, especially ii. 8; iii. 3, 4.) 

An instructive collection of them is given in “Remnants of Early 
Latin,” by F. D. Allen: Ginn & Co. 


436 A pendix. 


Latin did not exist as a literary language until about B.C. 268. 
The language was then strongly influenced by the writings of the 
Greeks, which were the chief objects of literary study and admiration: 
The most popular plays, those of Plautus and Terence, were simply 
translations from the Greek, introducing freely, however, the popular 
dialect and the slang of the Roman streets. As illustrations of life and 
manners they belong as much to Athens as to Rome. Thus the 
natural growth of a genuine Roman literature was very considerably 
checked. Orations, rhetorical works, letters, and histories, — dealing 
with practical affairs and the passions of politics, seem to be nearly 
all that sprang direct from the native soil. The Latin poets of the 
Empire were mostly court-poets, writing for a cultivated and luxurious 
class; satires and epistles alone keep the flavor of Roman manners, 
and exhibit the familiar features of Italian life. | 

In its use since the classic period, Latin is known chiefly as the 
language of the Civil Code, which gave the law to a large part of - 
Europe; as the language of historians, diplomatists, and philosophers 
during the Middle Ages, and in some countries to a much later period ; 
as the official language of the Church and Court of Rome, down to the 
present day; as, until recently, the common language of scholars, so 
as still to be the ordinary channel of communication among many 
learned classes and societies ; and as the universal language of Science, 
especially of the descriptive sciences, so that many hundreds of Latin 
terms, or derivative forms, must be known familiarly to any one who 
would have a clear knowledge of the facts of the natural world, or be 
able to recount them intelligibly to men of science. In some of these 
uses it may still be regarded as a living language; while, conven- 
tionally, it retains its place as the foundation of a liberal education. 

During the classical period of the language, Latin existed not only 
in its literary or urban form, but in local dialects, known by the col- 
lective namé of Zmgua ristica, far simpler in their forms of inflectiow 
than the classic Latin. These dialects, it is probable, were the basis 
of modern: Italian, which has preserved many of the ancient words 
without aspirate or case-inflection: as, orto (horius), gente (gentem). 
In the colonies longest occupied by the Romans, Latin, in its ruder and 
more popular form, came to be the language of the common people: 
Hence the modern languages called ‘“ Romance” or **Romanic”; vizi, 
Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, together with the’ Catalan 
of Northeastern Spain, the’ Provengal or Troubadour language of the 
South of France, the ‘* Rouman” or Wallachian of the lower Dariube 
(Roumania), and the ‘‘ Roumansch” of some districts of Switzerland. 


R 


LRA AF pd ety Reg end aie etd i al ial a 


Appendix. 437 

A comparison of words in several of these tongues with Latin will 
serve to illustrate that process of phonetic decay to which reference 
has been made in the body of this Grammar (§ 8.2), as well as the 
degree in which the substance of the language has remained unchanged. 
Thus, in the verb zo de the Romance languages have preserved from 
the Latin the general tense-system, together with both the stems on 
which the verb is built. The personal endings are somewhat abraded, 
but can be traced throughout. The following table shows the forms 
assumed by szmz in five of the Romance languages. In the others, the 
alterations are more marked. 


LaTIN. ITALIAN. SPANISH. PORTUGUESE. FRENCH. PROVENGAL. 
sum sono Soy sou suis son (sui) 
es sei eres és es ses (est) 
est é es hé est es (ez) 
sumus siamo somos somos sommes sem (em) 
estis siete sois sdis tes etz (es) 
sunt sono son $ad sont sont (son) 
eram era era era étais (V STA) era 

eras eri eras eras étais eras 

erat era era era était era 
eramus eravamo éramos éramos étions eram 
eratis eravate erais éreis étiez eratz 
erant érano eran érad étaient eran 

fui fui fui fui fus fui 

fuisti fosti fuiste foste fus fust 

fuit fii fué f6i fut fo (fon) 
fuimus fummo fuimos fomos fiimes fom 
fuistis foste fuisteis fOstos fates fotz 
fuerunt fairono fueron forad furent foren 

sim sia sea seja sois sia 

sis sii seas sejas sois sias 

sit sia sea seja soit sia 

simus siamo seamos sejamos soyons siam | 

sitis siate seais sejais soyez siatz 

sint siano sean séjao soient sian 
fuissem _fossi fuese fdsse fusse. fos 

fuissés fossi fueses fSsses fusses fosses 
fuisset fosse fuese fdsse fat fossa (fos} 
fuissemus fdssimo fuésemos fdssemos  fussions  fossem — 
fuissetis foste fueseis fSsseis fussiez fossetz 
fuissent féssero fuesen fSssem fussent fossen 


438 Appendix. 


es sii se sé sois 
esto sia sea seja soit 
este siate sed séde soyez 
sunto siano sean séjad_ soieut 
esse éssere ser sér etre 
[sens] essendo _ siendo séndo étant 


PRINCIPAL ROMAN WRITERS. 
REPUBLICAN WRITERS. 


T. Maccius Plautus, Comedies . ; ; : ° 
Q. Ennius, Annals, Satires, etc. (F capments) ate one et 
M. Porcius Cato, Husbandry, Antiquities, etc. . : > 
M. Pacuvius, 7ragedies (Fragments) . ; : . . 
P. Terentius Afer (TERENCE), Comedies . ° ak 
C. Lucilius, Satives (Fragments) : ; ° . 
L. Attius (or Accius), 7ragedtes (Fragments) aes Vaeayate 
M. Terentius Varro, Husbandry, Antiquities, etc. . . 
M. Tullius Cicero, Ovations, Letters, Dialogues . . : 
C. Julius Cesar, Commentaries . es eet 
T. Lucretius Carus, Poem “ De Rerum Nature uate . f 
C. Valerius Catullus, W/tscellaneous Poems . ‘ : ° 
C. Sallustius Crispus (SALLUST), Histories .  - wt 
Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Famous Commanders. . 


WRITERS OF THE AUGUSTAN AGE. 


P. Vergilius Maro (VIRGIL), Eclogues, Georgics, Aineid . 
Q. Horatius Flaccus (HORACE), Satires, Odes, Epistles ‘ 
Albius Tibullus, ZZegies ; - 8 ms : : . 
Sextus Propertius, Zlegies . 

T. Livius Patavinus (Livy), Roman Bicdiory ‘ ‘ 
P. Ovidius Naso (OvID), Metamorphoses, Fasti, etc. . - 
M. Valerius Maximus, Anecdotes, etc. . ; ‘ 
C. Velleius Paterculus, Roman History ‘ : p , 
Pomponius Mela, Husbandry and Geography . ; : 


WRITERS OF SILVER AGE, 


A. Persius Flaccus, Satires . P 
L. Annzeus Seneca, Philosophical gen ie etc; “a Trasedies ‘ 
M. Annzeus Lucanus (LucAN), Historical Poem “ Pharsalia” 
Q. Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander. 

C. Plinius Secundus (PLINY), Vatural History, ele. 


- 


sia 
siatz 
sian 


esser 
essent 


AGAR Aw i A TIS Cine Lehi in al 


Appendix. 439 


C. Valerius Flaccus, Herote Poem “ Argonautica ” - ; ; -38 
P. Papinius Statius, Heroic Poems “Thebais,” etc. . Fa ie 61-96 
C. Silius Italicus, Heroic Poem“ Punica” . . . . 25-100 
D. Junius Juvenalis (JUVENAL), Satires . ; : ‘ ; 40-120 
L. Annzeus Florus, Historical Abridgment . . : ; : -I20 
M. Valerius Martialis (MARTIAL), Zpigrams ? ” ; 43-104 
M, Fabius Quintilianus (QUINTILIAN), Aheforic . : i 5 40-118 
C. Cornelius Tacitus, Annals, History, etc. . ; , : 60-118 
C. Plinius Ceecilius Secundus (PLINy Junior), ba ; , : 61-115 
C. Suetonius Tranquillus, 7he Twelve Cesars . ° ° 70- 
Appuleius, Philosophical Writings, “ Metamorphoies® i ° : 110- 

A. Gellius, Miscellanies, “ Noctes Atticae” ; ‘ i" - about 180 


WRITERS OF CHRISTIAN PERIOD. 


# Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus (TERTULLIAN), feces 3 160-240 


t+ M. Minucius Felix, Apologetic Dialogue . ‘ - . about 250 
¢ Firmianus Lactantius, 7heology . : : : : ‘ : 250-325 
D. Magnus Ausonius, Miscellaneous Poems . ‘ : : : —380 
Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History. ‘ ‘ —395 
Claudius Claudianus (CLAUDIAN), Poems, Prnsyrish mrs é ‘ —408 


t Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems . : : * 348-410 
t Aurelius Augustinus (ST. AUGUSTINE), Confessions, Discourses, etc. 354-430 


t Hieronymus (ST. JEROME), Homilies, Dialogue:, Epistles, etc. —420 
Anicius Manlius Boéthius, Philosophical Dialogue ‘ ; . 470-520 
Maximianus, Zlegies . ° ° ° . : ‘ : . about 500 





t Christian writers, 


INDEX OF VERBS. 


In this index are given all the simple irregular verbs that the student will find in his’ 
reading. -Compounds are to be looked for under simple verbs. If the simple verb is given 
with no mention of compounds, the compounds are conjugated like the simple verb. If to 
the simple verb a compound form is added (as “statuéd [cinstitud]’’), the compounds 
vary from the simple verb, as may be seen under the particular compound mentioned. If 
different compounds of the same verbs present different irregularities, several specimens 
are appended to the simple verb (see e.g. ag6). Full-face figures (thus, 91) designate the 
most important among several references. References are to sections, unless “‘ p.’’ is used. 





ab-d6, 3, -didi,; -ditum, 130. N. regular comps., see ad-igd; for others, 
ab-e6, see e6. ° : see cdgo, circum-, per-, sat-ag6.] 
ab-nud, 3, -nui, -nuitum (-niitum) [-nud). aid, 18. £ N. 144. a. 
ab-ole6, 2, -Evi (-ui), -itum, 131. albedo, 2, -ui, —, 166. 3 
ab-olésco, 3, -évi, — [aboled}. albo, 1, reg., 166, a. 2, 4, 
abs-cond6, 3, -di (-didi), -ditum [cond]. | alesco, 3, -ui, —, 167. a, 
accerso, see arcesso. algeo, 2, alsi, —, 131, 166. 4. 
accidit (impers.), 145, 146. ¢ al-leg6, 3, -€gi, -Ectum [lego], 
ac-cid, 4, reg. [-cid]. al-licid, 3, -lexi, -lectum [-licio]. 
ac-cold, 3, -ui, — [cold]. al6, 3, alui, altum (alitum), 123. 4, 182. ¢. 
ac-créd6, see crédo, ; : ‘ambi6, -ire, -ii (-ivi), -itum (ambibat), 
ac-cumb6, 3, -cubui, -itum, 132. 141. ¢, 170. 4. 
acuo, 3, -ul, -iitum, p. 86, 123. @ amici6, 4, amixi (-cul), amictum, 133. 
ad-e6, see ed. amo, pp. 92, 95; §) 122. ¢c, 125. a, 126, 
ad-ig6, 3, -Egi, -actum [ago]. a, e-g, 127 (synopsis), p. 120, p. 12 
ad-im6, 3, -émi, -emptum [em6]. (amat, 9. ¢, 375. & 5; amarat, Io, 4; 
ad-ipiscor, -i, -eptus, 135. 2. amans, 113. ¢; amarim, amasse, amas- 
ad-nuo, 3, -nui, -niitum [-nud]. sem, 128. @. I; amassis, 128. & 5; 
ad-oled, 2, -évi (-ui), -ultum, 131. amaturus sum, amandus sum, 129, p. 
ad-olésc, 3, -€vi, -ultum [adoled]. 157, foot-n.). 
ad-sentior, -irl, -sénsus, 135. 4. ante-capio, 3, -cépi, -captum [capi6]. 
ad-sperg6, 3, -spersi, -spersum [sparg6]. | ante-celld, 3, —, — [-celld]. 
ad-sto, I, -stiti, —-, 130. N. ante-fero, like ferd, 170. a. 
ad-sum, -esse, -ful, 11. £3. N. ante-st0, I, -steti, —, 130. N. 
aequo, I, reg., 166. a. 2. anti-st0, 1, -steti, —, 130. N. 
aestud, I, reg., 123. d, 166. a. 3. aperio, 4, aperui, apertum, 133. 
af-fari, affatus, 144. c. apiscor, -i, aptus [ad-ipiscor], 135. 2. 
af-ferd, -ferre, attuli, allatum, 170. a ap-plaud6, 3, -plausi, -plausum [plaudo] 
af-flig6, 3, -xi, -ctum [-fligd]. arce6, 2, -ui, — [co-erced], 131. N. 
ag-gredior, -1, -gressus, 135. 2. arcessO (accers0), 3, -ivi, arcessitum, 
agito, 1, reg., 167. 5. N. 132. a. 
agnosco, 3, -Ovi, Agnitum, 132. ¢. ardeo, 2, arsi, Arsum, 131. 
ago, 3, egi, actum, 9. ¢, 124. d, 132. ¢, | argué, 3, -ui, -iitum, 132. A 

169. 4, 170. a. N. (agier, 128.¢.4). [For | arm6, 1, reg., 130. 





ee 


Index of Verbs. 


aro, I, reg., pp. I19, 120. 

ar-rig6, 3, -réxi, -rectum [rego]. 

aspicid, 3, -€xi, -ectum [-spicio]. 

‘assum, late form of adsum, 11. 7 N. 

at-tolld, 3, —, — [tolld]. 

auded, audére, ausus, 136 (ausim, 128. 
é. 3; sOdes, T3. 2). ’ 

audio, 4, audivi, auditum, pp. 104-5, 
§§ 122. ¢, I24. a, 125. a, 126, a, p. 120 
(contracted forms, 128. a. 2). 

aufero, -ferre, abstuli, ablatum, 170, a. 

augeo, 2, auxi, auctum, I3I. 

avé (have), avéte, avetd, 144. 76 

aved, 2, —, —, 131. N. 


bene-dic6, 3, -xi, -dictum, 169. 3. 
sbene-faci6, 3, -féci, -factum, 19. d. 1. 
bib6, 3, bibi, bibitum, 132. 7 

bullid, 4, reg., 166. d. 


cad6, 3, cecidi, casum [oc-cidd], 182. b, 
II. a. 2, 124. ¢, 125. 3. 

caeco, I, reg., 130. 

caecutio, 4, -Ivi, —, 133. 

caedo, 3, cecidi, caesum [oc-cid6], Io. a, 
123. ¢. 1, 132. b. 

cale-facio, like faciO, 169. a. 

calefact6, 1, —, —, 169. a. 

caleG, 2, -ui, calitiirus, 181, 167. a. N. 

calésc6, 3, -ui, —, 131, 167. a. N., 169. a. 

calles, 2, -ui, —, 1381. N. 

cane, 2, -ui, 131 N., 166. 4. 

cand, 3, cecini, tcantum [con-cin6], 132. 4. 

cantillo, 1, reg., 167. d. 

capess6, 3, capessivi, -itum, 132. d, 167. c. 
in-cipisso, 3, —, —. 

capio, 3, cépi, captum [ac-cipi6, etc.; 
also ante-capiO], 125. 4, 126. ¢, 132. ¢, 
p. 100 (capiét, p. 89, foot-n. 3). 

cared, 2, -uil, -itiirus, 131. N. 

carpo, 3, -psi, -ptum [dé-cerpd], 124. 4, 
1382. a. ; 

caved, 2, cavi, cautum, 131. 

cavillor, -ari, -Atus, 167. d. 

cedo (Imperative), cedite (cette), 144. 

céd6, 3, céssi, 11. £ 1, cessum, II. a. 2,182. 
a; ac-ced6, 11. f 3. 

-cell6, 132, ¢ (only in comp., see per- 
cell6, ex-cello, ante-cell6, prae-cell5). 
-cendo, 3,- cendi, -cénsum (only in comp., 

as in-cend6), 132. f 
cense6, 2, -wti, censum, 131. 
cerno, 3, crévi, cretum, 132. ¢. 





441 


certum est (impers.), 146. ¢. 

cied (-cid), ciére (-cire), civi, citum, 
131 [ac-cio, ex-ciO]. 

cing6, 3, cinxi, cinctum, 192. 4 a. 

~cid, see cied. 

circum-ago, 3, -€gi, -Actum [ago]. 

circum-do, -dare, -dedi, -datum, 130. N 

circum-miinis, 4, Teg., 170. a. 

circum-st6, I, -steti (-stit]), —, 130. N. 

clang6, 3, clanxi, —, 132. @. 

clauded, 2, —,—, see claudd (Zimp). 

claud6 (limp), 3.) —, 132. N. : 

claud6 (close), 3, clausi, clausum [ex- 


cliid6], 132. a. 
clep6, 3, clepsi, cleptum, 132. a. 
clued, 2, —, —, 131. N. 


|-co-em6, 3, -Emi, -emptum, 132, a. 


coepi, -isse, -ptiirus, 143. @. 
co-erced, 2, -ui, -itum [arced], 
co-gnosco, 3, -gnovi, -gnitum, 132. ¢ ) 

cdgo, 3, co-égi, co-actum, Io. d [ago]. 

colligo, 3, -légi, -lectum, 132. é. 

col-loc6, 1, reg., 170. @. 

cold, 3, colui, cultum [exe, ac-, in-], 
132, ¢. 

combirs, 3, -issi, -tistum [iro]. 

com-miniscor, -i, -mentus, 135. 4. 

com6, 3, cOmpsi, cOmptum, 132. a, 

comperi6, 4, -peril, compertum, 133. 

comperior, -iri, compertus, 135. 4. N. 

com-pesco, 3, -Cul, —, 132. ¢. 

com-ple6, 2, -évi, -etum, 131. 

com-pung6, 3, -nxi, -nctum [pungo]. 

con-cin6, 3, -ui, f-centum [cand]. 

con-cupisco, 3, -cupivi, -cupitum, 167. a, 

con-cutiO, 3, -cussi, -cussum, 132. @. 

condio, 4, reg., 166. a. 

con-d6, 3, -didi, -ditum, 130. N. 

cd-nect6, 3, -nexul, -nexum, 11, 7, N. 

con-fer6, -ferre, -tuli, col-latum, 170. a. 

con-ficid, 3, -féci, -fectum, 170. a. N. 

cdn-fiteor, -éri, -fessus [fateor]. 

con-gru6, 3, -uil, — [-grud}. 

con-iciG, 3, -iéci, -iectum [iacid], 12. 3, 2. 

co-nitor [nitor], 11. f N. 

c6-nived [-nived], tr. £ N. 

con-stat, -dre, -Atiirum, 145, 146. c. 

con-stitus, 3, -ui, -stititum [statud]. 

con-sto, I, -stiti, -stitum (-statum), 130. N 

con-sué-facio, like faci6, 169. a. 

cOn-suésco, 3, -evi, -etum (cOnsuérat, 
128, a. I), 143. & N., 169. 2. 

con-sul6, 3, -lui, -sultum, 132. ¢ 


442 


con-ting6, 3, -tigi, -tactum [tango] (con- 
tingit, impers., 146. c). 

coquo, 3, coxi, coctum, 132. a. 

cor-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapid]. 

cor: rud, 3, -ui, — [rud], 11. f 3. 

crédo, 3, didi, ditum [-d6]. 

crepo, I, -ul, -itum, 130. 

creésco, 3, crévi, cretum, 123. 4. I, 132. ¢. 

criminor, -ari, -atus, 135. 4 

crocio, 4, —, —, 133. 

cubo, I, -ui, cubitum, 130. 

cucurio, 4, —, —, 133. 

cud6, 3, -ciidi, -ctisum [in-ciid6], 132. 7 

-cumbé [cuB], (see ac-cumb6), 132. ¢. 

cupio, 3, cupivi, cupitum, 182. d, p. 86. 

-cupisco, 3, see con-cupisco. 

curr6, 3, cucurri, cursum [in-curr6], 132.4. 

custodio, 4, reg., 166. d. 


débeG, 2, -ui, -itum, 10. d, 

dé-cerpo, 3, -cerpsi, -cerptum, 146. ¢ 
[carpo]. 

decet (impers.), decére, decuit, 146. c. 

dé-fend6, 3, -di, -sum, 132. f 

dé-fetiscor, -i, -fessus, 132. 1 N. 

de-hisc6, 3, -hivi, — [hisco]. 

délectat (impers.), 146. ¢. 

deleo, 2, -evi, -etum, 122. ¢c, 125. d, 126. 

’ $2,181. 

démentio, 4, -ivi, —, 133. 

demo, 3, dempsi, demptum, 132. a. 

depso, 3, -sui, -stum, 132. ¢. 

dé-scendo, 3, -di, -sum [scando]. 

dé-silid, 4, -silui, -sultum [salio]. 

dé-sin6, 3, -sivi, -situm [sind]. 

dé-sipio, 3, —, — [sapio]. 

dé-sist6, 3, -stiti, -stitum [sistd]. 

dé-spicio, 3, -Spéxi, -spéctum, 170. @ 

dé-sponded, 2, -di, -sum [sponded]. 

dé-stru6, 3, -struxi, -structum, 170. @. 

désum, -esse, -fui [sum]. 

dé-vertor, -i, -sus, 135. z. 

dic, 3, dixi, dictum, 123. c. 1, 182. a, 169. 
5, p. 120, (dixti, 128. 4; dic, 128. ¢). 

dictito, 1, reg., 167. d and N. 

dif-ferd, -ferre, dis-tuli, di-latum [ferd]. 

dif-fiteor, -éri, -fessus, 135. 2. 

di-gndsc6, 3, -gndvi, — [ndscd]. 

di-ligd, 3, -léxi, -léctum, p. 103. foot-n. 
(di-léctus as adj., 113. ¢). 

di-lu6, 3, -lui, -litum [luo]. 

di-mico, 1, reg., 130. N. 

dir-ibed, 2, —, -itum, 11. @. 1 [habed}. 





Index of Verbs. 


dir-im6, 11. a, 1 [emd]. 

di-ru6, 3, -rui, -rutum [rud]. 

dis-céd6, 3, -céssi, -c€ssum, 170. 5. 

discd [DIC], 3, didici, discitiirus, 182. 5, 
p. 86. [So compounds.] 

dis-crep6, -ui or -avi, —, 130. N. 

dis-icio, 3, dis-iéci, -iectum [iacid]. 

dis-pand6, 3, -di, -pansum (-pessum) 
[pando]. 

dis-side6, 2, -sédi, -seéssum [seded]. 

di-sto, 1, —, —, 130. N. 

di-vido, 3, -visi, -visum, 132. a. 

dé [DA] (give), dire, dedi, datum, 118. 
N., p. 86, 123. 7, 126. 2, 130, p. 157. 
foot-n. (duim, perduim, 128. ¢. 2). 

-dd [DHA] (wt), 3, -didi, -ditum (only 
in comp., see abdo, credo, vendo), 
132. 3. 

doceo, 2, -ui, doctum, 131. 

doled, 2, -ui, -itiirus. 

dom6G, 1, -ui, -itum, 122. d, 130. 

diicd, 3, dixi, dictum, 132. a, 23. 3 
(diic, 128. ¢). 


ebullid, 4, —, —, 133. 

edo, 3, Edi, Esum, eaZ, 132. ¢, p. 86, 140, 
158. I. a 

é-d6, 3, -didi, -ditum, put forth, 130. N. 

ef-ferd, -ferre, extuli, €latum, 170. a. 

egeo, 2, -ul, —, I3I. N. 

€-ici, 3, -iéci, -iectum, 170. a. N. [iacid]. 

é-licid, 3, -ul, -citum, 132. a. 

é-mic6, I, -micui, -micatum, 130. N. 

é-mined, 2, -ui, — [-mined]. 

em6, 3, €mi, emptum [ad-, co-, dir-im6], 
g. a, 182. e. 

empturio, 4, —, —, 167. ¢. 

€-neco, I, -ul (-avi), nectum [necd]. 

€ns (in pot-ens, see sum), II9. a. 

€0, ire, ivi (ii), itum, 128. ¢. 1, 141, 158. 
1.4; (abiit, etc., 128. 4, 2; adisse, 144. 
4. R.; itum est, 141. a; Itur, impers., 146, 
d; aded (adeor), 141. a; ambi0, 144. ¢; 
prode6, -ire, -ii, -itum, 144. d). 

escit, escunt (see sum), I19. 3. 

est (see sum); ‘st (in hom@st, etc.), 13. 4 

ésurid, 4, —, -itum, 167. e. 

é-vad6, 3, -vasi, -vasum, 128. 3. 

é-venit (impers.), 145, 146. ¢. 

ex-cid, 4, -ii, -itum (-itum) [-cid]. 

ex-celld, 3, -cellui, -celsum, 132. ¢. 

ex-cluds, 3, -cliisi, -cliisum [claud6], 

ex-cold, 3, -ui, -cultum [cold]. 


Index of Verbs. 


ex-erced, 2, -cul, -citum [arced]. 

explicd, 1, (uz/o/d),-ui,-itum; (explain), 
-avi, -atum, 130. N. 

ex-pl6d6, 3, -si, -sum [plaudo]. 

ex-stingud, 3, -stinxi, -stinctum, 132. @. 

exsuld, I, reg., 130, 166. @. 3. 

exuo, 3, -ul, -titum, 166, ¢. 


facesso, 3, facessi, facessitum, 182. 7, 
167. ¢. 

facio, 3, féci, factum, 132. ¢, 142, 170. a. N. 
(fac, 128. ¢c; faxo, -im, 128. ¢. 3; afficio, 
11. 7 3; confit, défit, infit, effieri, inter- 
fieri, interfiat, superfio, 142. ¢; cOonficio 
and other comps. in -ficio, 142. a; bene- 
faci, etc., 142. 0; consuefacid, 169. a; 
calefacid, id.; calefacto, id.). 

-factd, 1 (in compounds), 169. a. 

fall5, 3, fefelli, falsum, 132. 

farcid, 3, farsi, farctum (-tum), [re-fercid], 
133. 

fateor, -Eri, fassus, [c6n-fiteor], 135. 4. 

fatisco, 3, —, —, 132. /, N. 

faved, 2, favi, fautum, 131. 

-fend6, 3, -fendi, -fénsum, 132.1 (See de- 
fends.) 

ferid, 4 (no perfect or supine), 133, 
I 

ferd, ferre, tuli, Jatum (fer, 128. ¢), 23, 
123. ¢, 158. 1. @ [af-, au-, cOn-, dif, 
ef-, in- of-, re-ferd]. 

ferdcid, 4, -ivi, —, 133. 

ferved, 2, ferbui, —, 131. 

fid6, fidere, fisus, 132. £ N, 186 [con- 
fido]. 

fig. 3, fixi, fixum, 132. @. 

findS [FID], 3, fidi, fissum, 123. c. 3, 124. 
c. N., 182. f. 

fingd [FIG], 3, finxi, fictum, 132 a, 124.4. 
N 


finid, 4, -ivi, -itum, p. 90, foot-n. 1, 
166 d. 

fid, fieri, factus, 142 (see faciO), p. 119 
(fit, impers., 146. ¢). 

flectd, 3, fléxi, flexum, 132. a. 

fled, 2, -€vi, -Etum, p. 86, 123. f 126. 4, 
131 (flétis, 128. a. 1). 

-fligo, only in comp., see af-flig6. 

£6, -are, -avi, -dtum, 126. a. 

flGreo, 2, -ui, —, 131. N. 

flud, 3, fluxi, fluxum, 132. a, 166. ¢. N. 

fodid, 3, fodi, fossum, 132. ¢. 

[for] fari, fatus, 126. a, 144. ¢, 158. 1.3 





443 


(praefatur, affari, prdfatus, interfatur, 
etc., 144. ¢). 

fore, forem, etc. (see sum), 119. 4. N.; 
fore, 147. ¢. 2. 

foveo, 2, fovi, fotum, 131. 

frango [FRAG], 3, frégi, fractum [per- 
fring], 132. ¢. 

fremo, 3, fremui, fremitum, 132. ¢. 

frendo, 3, frési, fressum, 132. a. 

fricO, 1, -ui, frictum (fricatum), 130. 

frigeo, 2, frixi, —, 131. 

frigO, 3, frixi, frictum (frixum), 132. a. 

fritinnio, 4, —, —, 133. 

fruor, -1, friictus (fruitus), 135. 4. 

fuam, -as, etc. (see sum), I19. 4 

fugio, 3, fugi, fugitum, 23. 2, 123. 4. 2, 124. 
@, 1382. e. 

fugd, 1, reg., 166. a. I. 

fulcid, 4, fulsi, fultum, 133. 

fulged, 2, -si, —, 181. 9. d, 134. 

fulg6, 3, —, —, 182. 7. N., 134. 

fulgurat (impers.), 146. a. 

fundd [FUD], 3, fidi, fusum, 132. ¢. 

fungor, -i, fiinctus, 135. 2. 

furd, 3, furui, —, 132. ¢. 

fiivimus, fiivisset (see sum), 119. & 


gannio, 4,—, —, 133- 

gaudeo, gaudére, gavisus, 131, 186. 

gem0, 3, gemul, gemitum, 132. ¢. 

gero, 3, gessi, gestum, 132. a, p. 120, 

gestio, 4, -ivi, —, 133, 166. d. 

gignd [GEN], 3, genui, genitum, 9. d, 123.0. 
2, 132. ¢. 

glisco, 3, —, —, 135.2 N. 

glocio, 4, -ivi, —, 133. 

glibd, 3, —, —, 132. 4. N. 

glutio, 4, reg., 133. 

gradior, -i, gressus [ag-gredior], 135. 2. 

grandinat (impers.), 146. a. 

-grud, 3, see con-, in-grud. 


habed, 2, -ui,-itum [in-hibed; 
dir-ibed]. 

haered, 2, haesi, haesum, 131. 

haurid, 3, hausi, haustum (haus-), 133. 

have, see avé, 

hibernO, I, reg., 166. a. 2. 

hiem6, I, reg., 166. @. 3. 

hinni6, 4, —, —, 133. 

hirrid, 4, —, —, 133. 

hisco, 3, —, — [de-hiscd], 132. 7 N. 

horreo, 2, horrui, —, 131. N. 


débed; 


444 


icd, 3, Ici, ictum, 132. 7 

igndsc6, 3, -novi, -notum [ndscd]. 

il-lid6, 3, -1isi, -lisum [laed5]. 

imbu0d, 3, -ui, -iitum (cf. acu). 

im-mine6, -€re, —, — [-mined]. 

imper6, 1, reg., 11. f 2. 

im-pell6, 3, -puli, -pulsum {pelld]. 

im-petr6, 1, reg. (-Assere, 128. ¢. 5). 

im-ping6, 3, -pégi, -pactum [pang]. 

im-plic6, 1, -Avi (-ui), -Atum (-itum), 
130. N. 

in-cend6, 3, -di, -sum, 132. 7 

AncéssO, 3, incéssivi, —, 132. d@. 

4n-cid6, 3, -cidi, -casum [cado]. 

‘incipio, 3, -c€pi, -ceptum, to, d, 143. a. 

‘in-col6, 3, -colui, — [cold]. 

‘in-ciids, 3, -ciidi, -citisum [ciidd]. 

‘n-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum 
feurrd]. 

‘mdulged, 2, indilsi, indiltum, 131. 

éndud, 3, -ui, -ttum, 11. a, 166. ¢. 

dineptid, 4, -ivi, —, 133. 

iin-fer6, -ferre, -tuli, illatum, 170. @; pro- 
nunciation, 18. d. 

‘I-fit, see fio, 

in-grud, 3, -ui, — [-grud]. 

‘in-hibe6, 2, -ui, -itum, 131 [habed]. 

inquam, 144. 4. 

insani6, 4, reg., 166. d. 

intelleg6, 3, -léxi, -léctum, p. 103, foot-n. 

inter-d6, -dire, -dedi, -datum, 130. N. 

interest, -esse, -fuit (impers.), 146. ¢. 

inter-fatur, 144. ¢ [+ for]. 

inter-rump6, 3, -rupi, -ruptum, 170. a. 

inter-st6, 1, -steti, —, 130. N. 

in-tueor, -€ri, -tuitus [tueor]. 

in-vad6, see vado. 

irascor, -i, iratus, 135. 2, 167. @ 


jaceo, 2, -ul, -ittirus, 131. 
jaci6, 3, iéci, iactum, 182. e, 170. a. N. 
[con-icid, etc.; dis-icio, porricid]. 

iubeS, 2, ifissi, ifissum, 131 (itiss6, 128. ¢.3). 
itidicd, 1, reg. (-assit, 128. ¢. 5). 

iung6, 3, itinxi, itinctum. 

juvenescor, 3, -venui, —, 167. a. 

iuv6 (ad-), 1, iiivi, iitum (-atiirus), 130. 


labasc6, 3, —, —, 167. 2. 

jabd, t, -avi, —, 130. 

labor, -i, lapsus, 135. 2. 

lacess6, 3, lacessivi, lacessitum, 132. @, 


167. 6 





Index of Verbs. 


laed6, 3, laesi, laesum {il-idd], 132. a. 

Jambé, 3, lambi, lambitum, 132. 

langued, 2, langui, —, r3r. 

lavo, -ére, lavi, }Otum (lautum) (also reg, 
of 1st conj.), 132. ¢, 134. 

leg6, I, 3, légi, léctum [eolligd, 10. d; see 
also délig6, diligd, intellego, neglegd], 
132. ¢, 9. a. 

lev6, 1, -Avi, -Atum (-dss6, 128. ¢. 5). 

libet (lubet, ro. a), -Gre, -uit, 146. ¢. (libi 
tum est, id. N.; libéns, id.). 

licet, -@re, -ititirum, 145, 146. ¢. (licitum 
est, 146. ¢. N.; licéns, id.). 

-licid, 3 [only in comp., see al-lici6, €-liciG, 
pel-licid], 132. a. 

lingd, 3, linxi, linctum, 132. a. 

lind [LI], 3, levi (livi), litum, 132. ¢. 

linqud [LIC], 3, liqui, -lictum, 132. e. 

lique6, 2, liqui (licul), —, 131. 

liquor, -1, —, 135. z 

loquor, -i, lociitus (loquiitus), 135. h, 
166. ¢. N. 

luced, 2, luxi,-luctum, 131 (licet, impers., 
146. 2). 

lud6, 3, ltisi, liisum, 132. 2. 

lugeo, 2, luxi, lictum, 131. 

lus, 3, lui, luitum [dé-lud], 132. £ 


maereo, 2, -—~, —, 144. 

mando, 3, mandi, mansum, 132. 4 

mane6, 2, mansi, mansum, [per-maned], 
II. @. 2, 121. N. 2,122. d, 181. 

medeor, -€ri, —, 135. ¢ 

memini (-t0, -t6te, -Ens), 143. ¢. 

mereod or mereor, merere or -ri, meritus, 
ofa. Raa Cage 8 

mergo, 3, mérsi, mérsum, 132. a. 

métior, -irl, ménsum, 135. 4. 

met6, 3, messui, messum, 132. ¢. 

metu0, 3, -ui, -titum, 166. ¢ 

micd, I, micui, —, 130. 

-mineo, 2, -ui, — [€-, im-, prd-mined}]. 

-miniscor, -, -mentus, 135. 4 [come, re-]. 

minuo, 3, -ui, -iitum (cf, acud). 

miror, mirari, miratus, 135. 

misced, 2, -cui, mixtum (mistum), It. @, 
131. 

misereor, -éri, miseritus (misertus), 146. 
6. N. 

miseret, 146. 3 

mitescd, 3, —, —, 167. a. 

mittC, 3, misi, missum, 123. 4. 1, 182. a. 


} mOlior, -iri, -itus, 166. d, 


Iudex of Verbs. 


mold, 3, molui, molitum, 132. ¢. 

mone, 2, -ui, -itum, 122. c, pp. 96-97, 
§§ 123. a, 124. a, 125. 4, 126. 4. I, 2, ¢, 
166. 2, p. 120. 

morded, 2, momordi, morsum, I2I. N. 2, 
131. 

morior, -i (-iri), mortuus, (moritiirus), 
135. 2. 

moveo, 2, movi, mOtum, 131 (commérat, 
128. a. I). 

migio, 4, reg., 133. 

mulceod, 2, mulsi, mulsum, 131. 

mulge6, 2, -si (-xi), milsum (milctum), 
131. 

multi-plic6, 1, reg., 130. N. 

muittid, 4, -ivi, —, 133. 


nanciscor, -1, nactus (nanctus), 135. 2 

nascor, -i, natus, 135. 2. 

necesse est (impers.), 146, ¢. 

neco, I, -ui, nectum, [€-necd], 130. 

nectO [NEC], 3, néxi (néxui), néxum, 
132. @. 

negleg6, 3, negléxi, -léctum, p. 103, foot- 
n. I. 

neo, 2, -evi, -étum, 126, 4, 181. 

nequed, -ire, nequitus, 144. 2 (nequitur, 
etc., id. N). 

ningit (impers.), ninxit, 146. a. 

nitor, -i, nisus (nixus) [cd-nitor], 135. 4. 

nived, 2, nivi (nixi), 131. 

no, I, navi, —, 126. a, p. 157. foot-n, 

nosc6 [GNO], 3, novi, notum [Ag-, c6-, 
di-, ig-ndscO] 182. e, 143. c. N. (nGsse, 
128. a. 1). 

nubo, 3, nupsi, niptum, 132, a. 

niincid, late form of niintid, 12. a. 

niintio, I, reg., 12. a. 

“nud, 3, -nul, -nuitum [ab-, ad-nud], 132. 4 


ob-liviscor, -i, oblitus, 135. 2. 

obs-olésc6, 3, -€vi, -€tus (adj.) [-oled]. 

obtingit (impers.), 146. c. 

ob-tines, 2, -ui,-tentum [tenes]. 

ob-tund6, 3, -tudi, -tiisum (tiinsum) 
{tund9]. 

ob-venio, 4, -véni, -ventum, 170. a. 

ob-venit (impers.), 146. ¢. 

oc-cid6, 3, -cidi, -casum [cad6], 11. f. 3. 

oc-cids, 3, -cidi, -caesum [caed6]. 

occuld, occului, occultum, 132. ¢. 

oc-curro, 3, ~curri (-cucurri), -cursum, 
II. 7. 3. 





445 


Sdi, Sdisse, Ssiirus (perdsus), 143. 3, 
c. N. 

of-fer6, -ferre, obtuli, oblatum, 170. @. 

-oled (grow) [see ab-, ad-], 131. 

oled (smedZ), 2, olul, —, 131. 

operio, 4, Operui, opertum, 133. 

oportet, -ére, -uit (impers.), 146. ¢. 

op-pang6, 3, -pégi, ~pactum [pango]. 

opperior, -iri, oppertus, 135. 4. 

Ordior, -iri, Orsus, 135. h, 166. d. N. 

orior (3d), -iri, ortus, (oritiirus) (so 
comps.), 135. h, p. 86, 

ovare, ovatus, 144. é 


paciscor, -i, pactus, 135. 2. 

paenitet (impers,), -€re, -uit, 146. 5 
(-tiirus, -tendus, 146. 4. N.). 

pando, 3, pandi, pansum (passum, II. a. 
2), [dis-], 132. 7. 

pango [PAG], 3, pégi (pepigi), pactum, 
[im-pingS; op-pang6], 1382. b, 23. 2. 

parco, 3, peperci (parsi), parsum, 132. 4 
(parcitur, impers., 146. @). 

pareo, 2, -ui, paritiirus, 131. 

pario, 3, peperi, partum (paritirus), 
[com-, re-perid], 132. 4. 

partio, 4, reg., but see next word. 

partior, partiri, partitus, 135. 

parturio, 4, -ivi, —, 167. ¢. 

pasco, 3, pavi, pastum, 132, ¢ 

pateo, 2, patul, —, 131. N. 

patior, -i, passus [per-petior] 11. a. 2, 
135. h. 

paved, 2, pavi, —, 131. 

pecto, 3, pexi (péxui), péxum, 132, a, 

pel-lici6, 3, -lexi, -lectum [-licid]. 

pell6, 3, pepuli, pulsum fim-pell6, ree 
pelld], 10. a, p. 86, 123. 4. 1, 182. b. 

pended, 2, pependi, pensum, 131. 

pend6, 3, pependi, pénsum, 132. 3. 

per-ago, 3, -€gi, -actum, 170. a. N. 

per-cell6, 3, -culi, -culsum, 132. ¢ 

per-cid, see -cid. 

per-fringo, 3, -frégi, -fractum [pango]. 

pergo, 3, (11. 6), perréxi, perréctum, 
132. a. 

per-leg6, 3, -légi, -léctum [leg]. 

per-mane6, 2, -mansi, -mansum [maned]. 

per-osus [Sdi], 143. 4 

per-petior, «i, -pessus, 135. 2. 

per-terres, 2, -ui, -itum, 170. ¢. N. 

pessum-do, -dare, -dedi, -datum, 130. N. 

petiss6, 3, —, —, 167. & 


446 


petd, 3, petivi, petitum, 122. d, 124. f 
125. 5. N. 2,182. d. 

piget (impers.), -Ere, piguit, 146. 4 (pigi- 
tum est, id, N). 

ping6 [PIG], 3, pinxi, pictum, 182. a, p. 
I2I, 

pinso, 3, -Sl, pins- (pinstum, pea) 132.f. 

pis, 1, reg., 166. a. 2. 

places, 2, -ui, -itum (placet, impers., 146. 
¢). 

plango, 3, planxi, planctum, 132. a. 

plaudo, 3, plausi, plausum [ex-pl6d6, 
etc.; ap-plaud6], 132. a. 

plectd, 3, plexi (-xui), plexum, 123, 4. 1, 
132. a, p. 86. 

-plector, -i, -plexus, 135. 2. 

-ples, 2, -plevi, -pletum (only in comps., 
as com-pled), 131. 

plic6, 1, -plicui, -plicitum, 130. N. [com- 
pounds], 130. 

pluit, 3, pluit (pliivit), p. 86, 146. @ (plu- 
unt, id. N.). 

pond [Pos], 3, posui, positum, 132. ¢, 

porr-icid, 3, no perf, -rectum [iacid], 
170. 4, 

poscd, 3, poposci (poscitiirus), 132. 4 (so 
comps.), 

possided, 2, sédi, séssum [seded]. 

possum, posse, potul, —, 137. 

pot-ens, 119. a (see sum), 

potior, -iri, potitus. 

pots, 1, -avi, potum, 130. 

praebeo [r1. 4. 1], 2, -ui, -itum. 

prae-cello, 3, no perf., no sup. [-celld]. 

prae-fatur, 144. ¢. 

prae-ligs, 3, légi, léctum [lego]. 

prae-séns, 119. a (see sum), 

praestat (impers.), 146. ¢. 

prae-sum, -esse, -ful, 137, 347. 3. 

prandeo, 2, prandi, pransum, 131. 

prehends (prends), 3, -di, prehénsum, 
132. . Js 

prem, 3, pressi, II. 7. 1, press- knee 
132. a. 

prend6, see prehend6, 

prod-c6, 4, ii, -itum, 144. @ 

pro-fatus, 144. ¢. 

pro-ficid, 3, -féci, -fectum. 

pro-ficiscor, -i, profectus, 182. h, 167. a. N. 

pro-fiteor, -éri, -fessus. 

pro-mined, -€re, —, — [-mined}]. 

prom, 3, -mpsi, -mptum, 132. a. 

pro-sum, prod-esse, pro-fui, 137. 





Index of Verbs. 


pr6-vided, 2, -vidi, -visum, 166. c. 

piibésco, 3, pubui, 166. 4. N. 

pudet(impers.), pudére, 146. 4 (pudendus, 
id. N.), puduit or puditum est. 

pugno, 1, reg. 

pugnatur (impers.), -ari, Atum, 145, 
146. a. 

pung6 [PUG], 3, pupugi, punctum [com-], 

32. 4, p. 120. 
punio, 4, -ivi, -itum, 166, a. 1, N. 


quaer6, 3, quaesivi, quaesitum [re-quir6], 
132. @ (cf. quaesd). : 

quaes6, -Gre, 144. d@ (cf. quaero). 

quass6, I, reg., 167. 4. 

quatid, 3, —, quassum [con-cuti6], 132. a. 

quedo, quire, quivi, quitus, 144. 2. (quitur, 
etc., nequed, id. N.). 

queror, -1, questus, 135. 2. 

quiésc6, 3, quiévi, quiétum, 132. ¢. 


rab6, 3, —, —, 132. , N. 

rado, 3, rasi, rasum, 132. @. 

rapid, 3, rapul, raptum, 132. ¢ (@répse- 
mus, 128. 4) [cor-ripid]. 

raucio, 4, rausi, rausum, 133. 

re-cipid, 3, -cépi, ceptum [capid] (re- 
cépso, 128. ¢. 3). 

re-cliid6, 3, -si, -sum, 170. 3, 

red-d6, 3, reddidi, redditum [d6]. 

re-ferci6, 4, -fersi, -fertum [farcid]. 

re-fer6, -ferre, rettuli (retuli), re-latum 
{ferd]. 

ré-fert, -ferre, -tulit (impers.), 146. ¢. 

re-fici6, 3, -féci, -fectum, 170. 4, 

rego, 3, réxi, 24. N., rectum [ar-rig6, etc. ; 
pérg6, sirgd], 132. a, p. 120. 

re-linqu6, 3, liqui, -lictum [linqu6]. 

reminiscor, -1, —, 135. 2. 

reor, réri, ratus, 126. 4,185. h, 166. 4. N, 

re-pell6, 3, reppuli, repulsum [pelld]. 

reperio, 4, repperi, repertum, 133. 

re-plico, I, reg., 130. N. 

repo, 132. a, répsi, reptum, 132. @. 

re-prim6, 3, -pressi, -pressum [prem6]. 

re-quir6, 3, -Sivi, -situm [quaerd]. 

re-sipisc6, 3, -sipivi (-sipui), — [sapid]. 

re-sponde6, 2, -di, -sum [sponded] . 

restat (impers.), 146. ¢. 

resto, I, -stiti, —, 130. N. 

revertor, -i, reversus, 135. 4 (8. N.). 

rided, 2, nisi, risum, 131, p. 120, 

rod, 3, r6si, rosum, 132. 2. 


Index of Verbs. 


rudo, 3, rudivi, ruditum, 132. d. 
rumpo [RUP], 3, ripi, ruptum, 132. e. 
ruo, 3, rui, rutum (ruitum) [di-, cor-], 


123. 4,132.7 


saepio, 4, saepsi, saeptum, 133. 

salid, 4, salui (salii), saltum [dé-silid], 
133. 

salve, salvere, 144. 7 

sancio [SAC], 4, sanxi, sanctum, 124. 3, N., 
133. 

sapio, 3, sapivi (sapul), —, 132. d. 

sarcio, 4, sarsi, sartum, 133. 

sario, see sarrio. 

Sarpo, 3, Sarpsi, sarptum, 132. a. 

sarrio, 4, -ivi (-ul), -itum, 133. 

sat-ago, 3, like ago. 

satis-d6, -dare, -dedi, -datum, 130. N. 

scabo, 3, scabi, —, 133. ¢. 

scalp6, 3, scalpsi, scalptum, 132. a. 

scated, -€re or -Ere, —, —, 134. 

scaturio, 4, —, —, 133. 

scando, 3, scandi, scansum [dé-scend6], 
132. 7, 

scin’ (=scisne), 13. c, see scid, 

scindd [SCID], 3, scidi, scissum, 124. ¢. 
N., 132. f. 

sci6, 4, -ivi, scitum ; scin, 13. ¢ (scit6, -tote, 
128. d). 

scisc6, 3, scivi, scitum, 132. ¢, 167. a. 

scrib6, 3, scripsi, scriptum, 11. f 2,182. a. 

sculp6, 3, sculpsi, sculptum, 132. a. 

sécerno, 3, -crévi, -crétum, 170. 3. 

seco, I, -ui, sectum (also secatiirus), 130. 

seded, 2, sedi, séssum [dis-, pos-sideo, 
etc.; super-sede6], 131. 

séns, 119. @ (in praeséns, abséns). 

sentid, 4, sénsi, sensum, 132. 

sepelid, 4, sepelivi, sepultum, 133. 

sequor, -i, seciitus (sequiitus), 135. 2. 

sero, 3, serui, sertum, entwime, 132. c. 

sero, 3, Sevi, satum, sow, 126. ¢, 182. ¢. 

Serpo, 3, Serpsi, serptum, 132. a. 

servi, 4, -ivi, -itum, 166. a. 1. N. 

servo, I, -Avi, -dtum, 166. a. I. N. 

sido, 3, sidi (s@di), -séssum, 132. 7% 6. 

siem, siés, siet, sient, 119. 4 (see sum). 

siled, 2, -ul, —, 131. N. 

singulti6, 4, -ivi, singultum, 133. 

sind, 3, sivi, situm, 121. N. 1,-182. ¢ 
(siris, etc., 128. a, 2). 

sists [STA], 3, stiti, statum, 132. b, p. 14, 
foot-n. 1, 158. 1. 3. 





447 


sitid, 4, -ivi, —, 166. d. 

sddés (=si audés), 13. ¢. 

soled, solére, solitus, 131, 136. 

solv, 3, solvi, soliitum, 132, ff 124. ¢, 
166. ¢. N. 

sono, I, -ui,-itum (fut. part. also -atiirus), 
130, 124. a. 

sopio, 4, -Ivi, -Itum, 123. a. 

sorbed, 2, sorbui (rarely sorpsi), sorptum 
(so also comps.), 131, 166. 4 N. 

spargo, 3, sparsi, sparsum [ad-spergo], 
132. a. 

sperno, 3, sprévi, sprétum, 9. d, 124. a. N, 

= Os 

-spici6, 3, -spéxi, -spéctum, 132. a, p. 86, 
Pp. 77. foot-n. 

sponde%, 2, spopondi, sp6nsum [re-], 131. 

’st, for est (in homOst, etc.), 13. 3. 

stabilid, 4, reg., 166. @. 

statuS, 3, -ui, -iitum [con-stitud], 123. d, 
166, ¢. 

stern6, 3, stravi, stratum, 9. d, 182. ¢, p. 
86, 124. a. N. 

stert6, 3, stertui (sterti), —, 132. ¢. 

stimul6, 1, reg., 166. a. 2, 

-stingu6, 3, -stinxi, -stinctum fonly in 
comp., as ex-], 132. a 

std, stare, steti, statum (-stit-), 180, p. 14, 
foot-n. I, 118. N., 126. a, cf. cOnstat., 
p. 120, p. 157. foot-n, [compounds, 
130. N.]. 

strepo, 3, strepul, strepitum, 132. ¢. 

strideo, 2, stridi, —, 131. 

strid6, 3, stridi, —, 132. 7 

stringo, 3, strinxi, strictum, 132. a. 

struo, 3, strixi, striictum, 132. a. 

studeo, 2, -ul, —, 131. N. 

suaded, 2, suasi, suasum, 131. 

sub-ride6, 2, risi, risum, 170. ¢. N. 

sub-strus, 3, -struxi, -striictum, 170, a, 

-suésco, 3, -Suevi, -suéetum, 132. ¢ 

suf-ferd, cf. tolld. 

siigo, 3, suxi, siictum (siigébG, p, 120). 

siltis (= si vultis), 13. ¢ (see vols), 

sum, esse, 123. ¢; fui, 119, 120. N., 128. ¢. 
2, p. I19, p. 120, p. 121, 158. 1. a (siem, 
119. 4; fore, 147. ¢. 2; escit, escunt, 
119. 6; forem, 119. 4. N.; fuam, r19. 4; 
fiivimus, flivisset, 119. 5; Ens, tséns, 
119. 2; homOst, etc., 13. 4). 

sumo, 3, Simpsi, stimptum, 11. ¢, 132. @. 

suo, 3, Sui, situm, see acud. 

super-do, -dire, -dedi, -datum, 135. N. 


448 


super-flud, 3, —, — [flud]. 
super-seded, like seded, 
super-sto, I, -steti, —, 130. N. 


super-sum, see sum (superest, impers., 


146. ¢). 
sup-plico, 1, reg., 130. N. 
surgo, 3, surréxi, surréctum, 132. a, to. 4. 


tabed, 2, -ui, —, 166. 4. N. 

taceo, 2, -ul, -itum, 131. 

taedet (impers.), -€re, taeduit, pertaesum 
est, 146. 3. 

tang6 [TAG], 3, tetigi, tactum [con-tingd], 
123, ¢. 3, 182. b. 

tego, 3, texi, tectum; 122. c, 123. 4, 124. 4, 
136. ¢, ¢, 132. a, pp. 98-99. 

temnd, 3, tempsi, temptum, 123. 4. 4, 
132. a. 

tendo [TEN], 3, tetendi (-tendi), 132. b; 
ténsum (tentum), 125. J. N. 1. 

tened (-tined), 2, tenui, tentum [ob-tined], 
131. 

terged, 2, térsi, tersum, 131. 

tergo, 2, térsi, tersum, 132. @. 

tero, 3, trivi, tritum, 132. @ (con-, II. 
fa. 

texo, 3, texul, textum, 132. ¢. 

timed, 2, -ui, —, 131. N. 


tingd (tinguG), 3, tinxi, tinctum, 125. 4. 


N. 1, 182. a. 

tinnio, 4, reg., 133. 

toll6, 3, sustuli, sublatum [at-tolld], 132. 
f-N. 

tonded, 2, totondi, t tonsum, 131. 

tono, I, -ui, -itum, 124. c, 130. 

torques, 2, torsi, tortum, 131. 

torred, 2, torrui, tostum, 131. 

trahd, 3, traxi, tractum, 132. @ (traxe, 
128. 3). 

trem6, 3, tremul, —, 132 ¢. 

tribud, 3, tribui, tribitum, cf. acud. 

trids, 3; triisi, trusum, 132. @. 


tueor, -é1i, tuitus (tiitus), 135. 2 [in-tueor]. 


tumed, 2, —,—, I 
tund6 ‘Trup}, 3, tutudl, tiinsum (-tisum) 
fob-tundo], 132. 





Index of Verbs. 


turge6, 2, tiirsi, —, 13%. 
tussio, 4,—, —, 133. 


ulciscor, -i, ultus, 135. 2. 

ungo (-ud), 3, unxi, inctum. 

urged, 2, irsi, —, 131%. 

urd, 3, iissi, istum (so comps., 
combir6o), 132. a, 

itor, -i, tisus, 135. 2. 


cf, also 


vacat (impers.), 146. ¢. 

vad6, 3, vasi, -vasum [€-], 132. a, 144. 

vagio, 4, -lvil, —, 133. 

vehd, 3, véexi, vectum, 132. a, p. 87. 
foot-n. 

velld, 3, velli (vulsi), vulsum, 132. £ 

vén-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 258. 5. R. 

vened, 4, -ivi, tum (be sold), 258. 0. R. 

venio, 4, veni, ventum (come), 1338, p.86. 

enureds: -dare, -dedi, -datum, 130. N 

vereor, veréri, veritus, 135. 

vergo, 3, —, —, 132. 4. N. 

verro, 3, verri, versum, 132. /. 

vertd (vort6, ro. @), 3, verti, versum, 182. 
f; mid., III. a, 124. é 

vescor, -i, —, 135. 2 

vesperascit (impers.), 146. a, 167. a, 

vetd, I, -ul, -itum, 130. 

vided, 2, vidi, visum, 131. 

videor, -éri, visus (seem) (vidétur, impers., 
146. ¢). 

vied, 2, —, -Etum, 131. 

vigild, 1, reg., 166. @. 3. 

vin (= visne, see vold), 13. ¢. 

vincid, 4, vinxi, vinctum, 122. ¢, 138. 

vincd [VIC], 3, Vici, victum, 132. ¢, 

viso [VID], 3, visi, visum, 182. 7, 167, 
é.N. 

vivo, 3, Vixi, victum, 132. a (vixet, 123. 3). 

voc6, I, -avi, -Atum, see p. 87. foot-n., p. 
157. foot-n. (vocarier, 128. ¢. 4). 

volo, velle, volui, 123. ¢, 128. ¢. 2 (vult, 
123. ¢; sultis, 13. ¢; vin, 13. ¢). 

volvo, 3, volvi, voliitum, 132. 7 

vomo, 3, vomui, vomitum, 132. & 

voved, 2, vOvi, vOtum, I31. - 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS, 


iow 


a On aed 


Note.— The numerical references are to sections, with a few exceptions in which the 
page (p-) is referred to, ‘The letters refer to subsections. The letter N. signifies Note; R., 
Remark. Abl. = ablative; acc. = accusative; adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; apod. = 
apodosis; app. = appositive; comp. = comparison or compound; compar. = comparative; 
constr. = construction; conj. = conjugation or conjunction; dat. = dative; gen. = genitive; 
gend. = gender; ind. disc. = indirect discourse; loc. = locative; prep. = preposition; subj. = 


subject or subjunctive; vb. = verb; w. = with. 


A, quantity in increment, 350, 351; quan- 
tity of @ final, 348. 4. 

&% or O, Indo-Eur. vowel, p. 142. foot-n.; 
primary suffix, 160, ¢. 1. 

&, characteristic of decl. I., 32; acc. of 
Gr. nouns in, 63. 4; as nom. ending, 
decl. III., gend., 65. ¢, 67. @. 

&, in decl. I., 32; stem-vowel of conj. I., 
122, 123, 126. a, 166, a; in subjunctive, 
126. d-d; preps. in -&, adv. use of, 
261. a. 

& (ab, abs), use, 152. 4, 153, 260. 4, 263; 
compounded with vbs., 170. a; with 
abl. of agent, 246; with place from 
which, 258; with names of towns, id. 
a. N. I; expressing position, 260. 3; in 
comp., with dat., 229; with abl., 243. 
6; with abl. of gerund, gor. 

Ability, verbs of, constr., 271; in apod., 
308. ¢. 

Abbreviations of przenomens, 0. d; 
other abbreviations, p. 428. 

ABLATIVE, Ztymology; meaning, 31. /; 
in: -Abus, 36. ¢; in -d, 36. £ 40. 2, 62. 
a, 70. A; of i-stems, decl. I1I., 55. ¢; 
tules of form, 57; nouns having abl. 
in -8, 57. a, 2; of decl. 1V., in -ubus, 
7o. d; abl. used as supine, 71. a; of 
adjs., decl. III., 87. a, 8; prepositions 
‘followed by, 152. 4; adverbial forms 
cf, 148. ¢, cf. N. Bp. 

ABLATIVE, Syntax (§§ 242-255) ; mean- 
ing and classification, 242 and N.; 
‘Separation, 243; w. vbs. of freedom, 
étc., id. a; w. comp., id. 3; w. adjs. of 





(Other abbreviations present no difficulty.) 
freedom, etc., id. ¢; w. Opus and 
tisus, id. e. Source and material, 
244; W. participles, id. a; w. c6n. 
stare, etc., id. c; w. facere, id. d; 
w. nouns, id. e. Cause, 245; w. dig. 
nus, etc.,id. a; Causad, gratiG, id. ¢, 
Agent, 246. Comparison, 247; opini. 
One, Sp, etc., id. d; w. alius, id, d; 
w. advs., id. ¢. Manner, 248; accom. 
paniment, id. a; means, id. ¢; w. 
ddnG, etc., 225. d; w. titor, fruor, 
etc., 249. Degree of difference, 250; 
quod... e6, 106. ¢, 250. R. Quality, 
251; price, 252; charge or penalty, 
220. 6. Specification, 253. Place, 254; 
w. verbs and frétus, id. 4. Ablative 
absolute, 255; adverbial use, id. c; re- 
placing subord. clauses, id. d; supply- 
ing place of perf. act. part., 290. d. Abl, 
of time, 256; of time w. quam, 262, 
N. 2; of place from which, 258; names 
of towns, domus, ris, id. a; ex 
urbe Roma, id. 4. N. 3; Locative 
abl., id. ¢, 4; way by which, id. g; with 
transitive compounds, 239. 4. N. TI; 
time within which, 259. ¢; distance of 
time, id. @ Abl. with ptépositions, 
152. b, c, 260-63; with @x for part. gen., 
216. c; with prO (i2 defence of), 236. 
R.; with pala&m, etc., 261. 4; abl. of 
gerund, 301; equiv, to pres, part., id. 
foot-n. (See N., p. 245.) 

Abounding, Words of, w. abl., 248. ¢; W. 
gen., 223. 
Absente, vbs. of, w. abl., 243. a. 


450 


Absolute use of vb., 175. 3. N. 2, 237. 
N.; absolute case, see abl. absolute, 
Abstract nouns, gend., 29. 2; in pl., 75. 
¢; endings, 163. 4, ¢,/; w. neut. adj., 
187. ¢, 189. a, 0; abstract quality de- 

noted by neut. adj., 189. a. 

absum, constr., 231. a. 

-abus, in dat. and abl. pl., decl. I., 36. ¢. 

&c, see atque; fic sl, see csi. 

Acatalectic verse, 359. a. 

accédit ut, 332. 

Accent, rules of, 19; marks of, id. d. N.; 
in decl, I1., 40. 6; in comps. of faci, 
142. 4; musical, 358. 

acceptum, 202. N. 2. 

Accidents, p. 163, foot-n. 2, 

accidit, synopsis, 145; constr., 332. a. 

accing6, constr., 225. a. 

accommodatus, w. dat. of gerund, 
etc., 299. foot-n. 

Accompaniment, abl. of, 248 a; orig. 
separate case,p, 245. 

Accomplishment, vbs. of, w. subjunc., 332. 

ACCUSATIVE, Zitymology, 31. d; in -m 
and -8, 33. ¢; origin of -m, p. 205; in 
-im, decl. III., 56. a, 4; in-is (pl.), 58; 
in +a, 63. 7; acc. of decl. IV., used as 
supine, 71. a; neut. acc, used as adv., 
148. d, cf. N.a; fem. used as adyv., id. e. 

ACCUSATIVE, Syztax, 237-40 (see notes 
PP. 205, 235); w. verbs of remembering, 
219 and a, é; and gen. w. vbs. of remind- 
ing, id. ¢; w. impersonals, 221. 4, 237. ¢; 
w. dat., 225 ; w. compounds ofad, ante, 
Ob, 228. a; verbs varying between acc, 
of end of motion and dat., 225.4; w. 
ad, for dat., 234. 4; after propior, 
etc., id. ¢; direct object, 177, 237; w 
iuv6, etc., 227. a; acc. or dat. w. vbs., 
227. 6,¢; acc. w. verbs of feeling and 
taste, 237. 5, c; with comps. of* cir- 
cum and trans, id. d; cognate acc., 
238; two accusatives, 239; acc. w. 
pass. of verbs of asking, etc., 239. R.; 
adverbial use of, 240. a, 8; synecdoch- 
ical acc., id. c; in exclamations, id. d; 
duration and extent, id. e, 256, 257; 
end of motion, 258; names of towns, 
domus, ris, id. 4; ROmam ad 
urbem, id. N.3; acc. w. ante diem, 
259. ¢; subject of inf., 173. 2, 240. f, 272, 
330; W. prepositions, 152. a.c; w. ad 
or in to denote penalty, 220. 4. 3; w. 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


ad w. réfert, etc., 222. 3; w. pridié, 
propius, etc,, 261. a; acc. of gerund, 
300; of anticipation, 334. ¢; subject in 
indirect discourse, 336. and a. 

Accusing and acquitting, vbs. of, constr., 
220, 

&cer, decl., 84. @; comp., 89. a. 

-iceus, adj., ending. 164. g. 

aciés, decl., 74. d, 

acquiéscG, with abl., 254. 4 

&csi, with subjunc., 312. 

Actions, names of, 193; nouns of, w. gen., 
217. 

Active voice, 108, a, IIT; change to pass., 
177. @. 

Acts, nouns denoting, 163. ¢. 

acus, gender, 69. a. 

-acus (-Acus), adj. ending, 164. c. 

ad, use, 152. @, 153; in comp., 170. @; 
w. acc. to denote penalty, 220. ¢; in 
comp., w. dat., 228, 229; in comp., w. 
acc., 228. @; W. acc. W. adjs., 234. 3; 
end of motion, 258, cf. 225.4; w. names 
of towns, 258. & N. 2; w. names of 
countries, 258, N. 2; meaning near, 
259. /; in expressions of time, id. 3; 
following its noun, 263. N.; w. gerund, 
300, 

adamas, decl., 63. ¢. 

additur, constr., 332. 

ade6 (verb), constr., 228. a. 

ade6 ut, 319. R. 

-adés, patronymic ending, 164. re 

adim3, constr., 229. 

Adjective phrase, 179. 

Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns. 

ADJECTIVES, Ztymology. Definition, 25. 
4; formed like nouns, p.47; stems, id. 
foot-n. 1. Declension, 81-87; decl. I. 
and II., 81-83; decl. III., 84-87; decl. 
III., three terminations, 84. a; one 
termination, 85. Comparison, 89-91; 
decl. of comparative, 86, a; advs. de- 
rived from adjs., 148; numeral adjs., 
94,95; derivative adjs., 164. 

ADJECTIVES, Syntax and use. As advs., 
88. d (cf. 92), 148. d, e, I9I; as nouns 
88. a, 188, 189, 218. @; masc. adjs., 88. 
5; adjs. of com. gend., 88. 4; nouns 
used as adjs., 88. ¢, 188. @; advs. used 
as adjs., 188. ¢; participles used as 
adjs., 291. Agreement of adjs., 186, 
187; attribute and predicate, 187. a, ; 


NR TS 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


use of neut. adjs., 189; two compara- 
tives with Quam, t92. Adjs. w. ad- 
verbial force, 191; adj. pronouns, 195- 
203. Gen. of adjs. of decl, II]. instead 
of nom., <14. d@ R. Adjs w. part. gen., 
218; w. dat., 234; w. acc., 237. 7; Ww. 
inf., 273. d@; w. supine in -Q, 303. Po- 
sition of adjs., 344. @ 6 Adjective 
phrase, 179. 

adiuv6, w. acc., 227. a, 

admodum, use, 93. d. 

admoneéd, constr., 219. ¢. 

Admonishing, vbs. of, constr., 330. 2, 331. 

Adonic verse, 371. 3. 

adspergs, constt., 225. a. 

adilor, constr., 227. d. 

Adverbial acc., 240. a, 4, cf. 238. a. N. 

Adverbia} conjunctions, 25. 2. N. 

Adverbial phrases, 148. N. 6, 179. 

ADVERBS, defined, 25. 7; formed from 
adjs., 88. d and N., 92, 148; case-forms 
or phrases, p. 123. N.; comparison of 
advs., 92; numeral advs., 96; correla- 
tive advs. used as conjs., 107, 208. d. 
Classification of advs., 149; correlative 
forms of advs. of place, 149. foot-n. 
Advs. used as adjs., 188. ¢; adjs. w. 
adverbial force, 191; adverbial acc., 
240. a; adverbial abl. abs., 255. c¢. 
Special uses, 150, 151. SYNTAX, 207; 
adv. w. nouns, 207. d; part. gen. w. 
advs., 216. a. 4; dat. w. advs., 234. 
a; comp. of adv. followed by quam, 
247. €; adv. as protasis, 310. a. 

Adversative conjunctions, 154. @. 2, 155. 4. 

adversus, 152. foot-n.; w. acc., id. a; 
as adv., 261. d. 

ae, diphthong, 1; sound of, 16, N. 3, 12.¢. 

aedé6s, sing. and pl., 78. ¢. 

aeger, decl., 82. ¢. 

aemulor, constr., 227. 3. 

Aenéad6s, decl., 37. 

Aenéas, decl., 37. 

aequalis, decl., 57. a; constr. w. gen., 
218. d. 

aequé AC, 234. a. N. 2. 

aequo (abl.), w. comp., 247. 4. 

aequor, decl., 49. 

aér, decl., 63. £; use of pl., 75. 2. 

aes, decl., 67. 4; use of pl., 75. 2. 

aetas, decl., 54. 

aeth6r, decl., 63. 7 

Affecting, acc. of, p. 235. 





451 


affinis, decl., 57. 4; constr. w. gen., 
218. d. b leet 

Affirmative, expressed by two negatives, 
150; nOnne expecting affirm, answer, 
210. ¢; ways of saying yes, 212, and a, 

Affix, close and open, 24. N. 

Agency, nouns of, 162; rel. clause equiv- 
alent to, 201. 3, 

Agent, dat. of, w. gerundives, 232; w. 
perf. parts., id. a; abl. of, 246; agent 
regarded as means, id. 4; animal as 
agent, id. N. 

ager, decl., 38. 

agegredior, constr., 228. a. 

Agnimen, 80. b. 

ago, forms of, omitted, 205. ¢ 

Agreeing, verbs of, with gerundive, 294. d 
(cf. 331. 2). 

Agreement, 181; forms of, 182; of nouns, 
183, in appos., 184; in predicate, 185; 
of adjs., 186; of demonstrative pro- 
nouns, 195; of possessive pronouns, 
197; of relatives, 198, 199; of verbs, 
204, 205. 

-Ai for -ae, decl. I., 36. a; 347. a. 2. 

-Gius in Prosody, 347. d, note 1. 

-al and -ar, neuters in (decl. III.), 53. ¢, 
57. a, 67. a 

-al, ending, 164. 2.7; list of nouns in, p. 
30. foot-n, I. 

alacer, decl., 84. a; comp., 91. d. 

albus, not compared, 89. N. 

Alcaic verse, 371. 9, Io. 

Alcmanian strophe, 364, a. 

-Gle, noun-ending, 164. 7.7; list of nouns 
in, p. 29, foot-n. 2. 

ali-, old stem, 83. foot-n. 

aliénus, for possessive gen. of alius, — 
83. 4, 190, 214. a. 

aliqui (-quis), decl., 105.2; derivation 
and use, id, N.; meaning, 202. a, 3. 

aliquot, indeclinable, use, 106, a. 

-Alis, -Aris, adj. endings, 164. d. 

alius, decl., 83 and foot-notes; gen., id. 
4, cf. 214. a; compounds, 83. 4; alius 
with abl., Ac, nisi, quam, 247. d. 

alius ...alius, alter... alter, 203. 

Alphabet, p. 1; vowels and diphthongs, 
I; consonants, 2; table of vowels and 
consonants, 2,5; early forms of letters, 
6, 7 

alter, decl., 83; gen. and comps., id. 3; 
use, 203; reciprocal use, 99. d, 203. 


452 


alter... alter, 203. 

altera est rés ut, 332, foot-n. 

alteruter, decl., 83. 4; use, 203. a. 

Although, how expressed, 313, Aone é. 

alvos (alvus), gend., 39. a. 

am-, see amb-, 

amb-. (am-, an-), inseparable. prefix, 
170. 6; -am, adv. ending, 148. N. «. 

ambagés, decl., 59. 

ambo, decl., 94. 4. 

am6ns, decl., 87. a 

amplius, without quam, 247. c. 

amussim, acc., 56. a, 77. 2. 

an-, see amb-. 

an, anne, anndn, in double questions, 
art. 

an (in, on), primary suffix, 160. yu. 

Anacrisis, 355. 2. 

Anapeest, 356. 4; anapzestic verse, 360, 
374. a 

Anaphora, 344. f. 

anas, decl., 67. d. 

anceps, decl., 87. a 

Anchisés, decl., 37. 

Andromaché, decl., 37. 

-Aneus, adj. ending, 164. 2. 

animal, decl., 52. 

Animals, gend. of names of, 29. 2, 30, id. 
4; regarded as means, 246, 4, N. 

animi (loc.), w. adjs., 218. ¢. R.; w. 
verbs, 223..¢. 

AniG, decl., 67. 3. 

ann@lis, decl., 57. a. 

Answers, forms of, 212. 

ant, primary suffix, 160. e«; ant-, ent-, 
stem endings, 63. ¢. 

ante, 152. a; uses, 153; compounded 
w. vbs., 170. a; in compounds, w. dat., 
228, w. acc., id. a; adverbial use of, 
261. d; followed by quam, 262. 

ante diem, 259. e. 

Antecedent, its use with relative, 198, 200; 
undefined, constr., 320; see indefinite 
antecedent. 

antecédG, constr., 228. a. 

anteed, constr., 228. a. 

antegredior, constr., 228. a. 

Antepenult, 19. def 

antequam, 327; in ind. disc., 336. B. a, 
N. 2. 

Antibacchius, 356. é. 

Anticipation, acc. of, 334. ¢; becomes 
nom., id. R. 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


Antithesis, 344. 7 

anus, gend., 69. a. 

-Anus, adjs. in, 164. ¢, 

Aorist (= hist. perf.), 115. ¢. 2, 279. 

apage, 144.7, 

& parte, 242. N.; 260, 3. 

apertus, comp. of, 89. e. 

apis, decl., 59. 

Apodosis, defined, 304; introduced bycor- 
rel.,id. 2 and N.; may be subord., id. ¢; 
forms’ of, 305, 306 ff.; potential subj., 
311, a and R.; subj. of modesty, id. 4; 
verbs of necessity, etc., id. ¢; complex 
apod., id. @; apodosis omitted, 312; 
apod. in Ind. Disc., 337. 

Appointing, verbs of, constr., 239. a. 

Apposition, see appositive. 

Appositive, defined, 184; agreement of, 
183, 184. 5; w. locative, id. c; gen. as 
appositive to possessive, id. d, 197 ¢; 
gen. used for app., 214. 7, so dat., 231, 
4; rel. clause equivalent to appositive, 
201. 6; acc. as app. to a clause, 240. 
£3 appositive instead of voc., 241. a; 
app. in connection with inf., 270. N. 2. 

aptus ad, 234. 4; aptus, w. dat. of 
gerund, etc., 299, foot-n.; aptus qui, 
320. f. 

apud, 152. a; use, 153; in quoting, 258, 
6. 2. N. 2 

aqualis, decl., 57. a. 

-ar, nom, ending, decl. III., 51. ¢, 53. ¢, 
57. @; p. 30, foot-n. 1; gend., 65. ¢, 67. a. 

-ar, -Aris, nouns in, 67. 4. 

arbor (-6s), decl., 48. d. 

arceo, constr., 225. d. N. 2. 

Archilochian verse, 368. 

arctus, gend., 39. a. 

arcus, gend., 69. a. 

ardeo, w. abl., 245. a. 2. 

-Bria, suffix, 164. z. 2. 

-Aris, adj. ending, 164. d. 

-Arium, noun ending, 164. 2. 3. 

-Arius, adj. ending, 164.4; noun, id. @, 4. 

Aristophanic verse, 371. 2. 

Arrangement of words, 343-46. 

Arsis and thesis, 358 and foot-n, 

Arts, names of, decl. I., 37. 4 

artus, decl., 70. d. 

as, primary suffix, 160, = 

-&8, in acc. pl. of Gr. nouns, 63. 4 67. ¢. 

-&S, old gen. ending, 36. 4; Gr. nom, 
ending, 63. ¢; patronymic, 164. 6; 


SF et fe 5 ct, 


ee eS Sheen it 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


gend. of nouns in, 65. 4: -&s, -atis, 
67. d, see &t-; adjs. in -as, 164. c. 

as, decl. 67. d; value of, 377; gen. of, 
252. d. 

Asclepiadic, verse, 371. 5, 6. 

Asking, vbs. of, w. two acc., 239. ¢; Ww. 
abl., 239. ¢. N. 1; w. subjunc, clause, 
331- 

Aspirates, 2. a, 3. 

-Aassere, in fut. perf., 128. e¢. 

Assertions, direct, in Indic., r11. a. 

Assibilation, 12. N. 

Assimilation of consonants, 11. 77 

assis, gen. of value, 252. 4. 

-Ass6, -Assere, in fut. perf., 128, e. > 

ast, 156. 2. 

-aster, as noun ending, 164. z. 12. 

astus, defect., 77. 3. 

Asyndeton, 208. 4, 346. c. 

At, meaning near, 258. ¢. N. 1. 

at, use, 156.4; at enim, id.; at v6r6, 
208. é. 

at-, patrial stem-ending, 54. 3; decl., 59; 
87. d. 


ater, decl., 82. c; not compared, 89. N. 


Ath6s, decl., 43. 

Atlas, decl., 63. ¢, 64. 

atque (&c), use, 156. a; after adjs. 
of likeness, 234. a. N.2; after alius, 
247. a. 

atqui, use, 156. 4. 

atrox, decl., 85. a. 

Attraction of case of relative, I99. a. 

Attraction, subjunctive of, 340, 342. 

Attributive adjective defined, 186. a; 
number, 186, d@; takes gender of near- 
est noun, 187. a. 

-Atus, adj. ending, 164. 7 

at v6rG, 208. ¢. 

audacter, comp., 92. 

aula, decl., 37. 

aureus, not compared, gt. d. N. 

ausus as pres, part., 290. 4. 

aut, use, 156.¢; 212. R. 

autem, use, 156. 4, 2; 345. 3. 

Authority in Prosody, p. 394. 

Author w. apud, 258. c. N. 2. 

avis, decl., 57. 3. 

-&x, verbal adj. ending, 164. 7; adjs. in, 
with gen., 218. 3. 

-@X, nouns in, 67. é. 

AYA, as origin of verb-forms, 123. foot- 
n, I. 





baccar, decl., 57. a. 

Bacchiac verse, 374. 3. 

Bacchius, 356. a. 

-bam, tense-ending, p. 119. 

Bargaining, verbs of, constr.; gerundive, 
294. d; clause, 331. d. ; 

Base, p. 13, foot-n. 2, 31. 2. N. 

basis, decl., 64. 

Beginning, verbs of, constr., 271. 

Believing, verbs of, with dat., 227. 

belli, locative use of, 258. d. 

bellum, decl., 38. 

bellus, comp., 91. d. 2. 

Belonging, adjs. of, w. gen., 234. d. 

bene, comparison, 92; compounds of, 
constr., 227. é. 

Benefiting, verbs of, constr., 227. 

-ber, names of months in, decl., 84. a. 

bi-color, decl., 87. d, 7. 

bi-corpor, 85. 4. N. 

-bilis, verbal adj.-ending in, 164. m. 

bipennis, decl., 87. 4. 

Birds, gend. of names of, 29. 2. 

Birth or origin, nouns of, derivation, 164. 
4; parts. of, with abl., 224. a. 

-b6, tense-ending, pp. 119, 120. 

bonus, decl., 90; w. dat. of gerund, etc. 
299. foot-n. 

b6s, decl., 60. 4, 61. 

bri-, stems ending in, 51. 4; adjs. in, 
84. a. 

-brum, suffix, 163. d. 

-bs, nouns in, 67. ¢. 

-bulum, suffix, 163. d. 

-bundus, verbals in, 164. ~; w. acc., 
237. f- 

biris, decl., 56. a. 

Buying, verbs of, constr., 252. a, 


C for g, in early use and as abbreviation, 
6; for qu, 7; gend. of nouns in -c, 65, 
¢; quantity of final syllables ending in, 
348. Io, 

caedés, decl., 59. 

caelés, decl., 87. 4, 

caelum, with masc. pl., 78. 2 4. 

Caere, decl., 57. a. 

caesius, comp., 91. d. 

Ceesura, 358. 4; masc, and fem. 362. 4 
R.; bucolic caesura, id. 

Calendar, Roman, 376, 

Calends, 376. a. 

calx, decl., 77. 4 


453 


454 


campester, decl., 84. a. 

Can, how expressed in Lat, 112, 3. N. 

canailis, decl., 57. 2. 

canis, decl. and stem, 47. ¢, 51. a. 

CAP, root, 45. a. 

Capacity, measures of, 383. 

capitis, gen., with verbs of accusing, 
220. a. : 

caput, decl., 46. 

Capys, decl., 63. 2, 64. 

carbasus, gend., 39. a; plur., 78. 2. 2. 

Cardinal numbers, 94., replaced by dis- 
tributives, 95 4, d.; inflection of id. 
a-e; with eX., 216. c. 

C&r6é, comp., 92. 

caro, decl., 61. 

carus, compared, 89. 

Case-constructions, N., p. 205. 

Case-endings, 31. z. N.; final vowels in, 
33-2; table, 34. 

Case-forms, words defect. in, 77. 

Cases, defined, 31; position of modifyng 
case, 344. a. 2; agreement in, 183; 
origin and meaning of, p. 205; case of 
rel, pron., 198, 199. a; same case after 
as before certain conjs., 208. a, Con- 
struction of Cases, 213-263; Genitive, 
213-223; Dative, 224-236; Accusative, 
237-240; Vocative, 241; Ablative, 242- 
255; time and place, 256-259; cases 
with preps., 260, 258. foot-note, 

cassem, decl.,77. 5. 

castrum, castra, 78. ¢. 

Catalectic verse, 359. a. 

Ccausa@, w. gen. 223. ¢, 245. ¢; w. gen. of 
gerund, 318. 

Causal clauses, w. indic. or subj., quod, 
quia (cf. N. 3), qUoniam, 321; w. 
quando, id. N. 3; w. qui, 320. e; with 
cum, id. /; non quia, non quod, 
etc., in the denial of a reason, 321. R.; 
causal clause replaced by part., 292; by 
abl. abs. 255. d. 2. 

Causal conjunctions, 154. @, 3, 155. ¢; 
particles, 321. 

Cause, abl. of, 245, 

Cause, adverb of, 149. ¢. 

Caution and effort, vbs. of, constr., 331. ¢. 

cave, in prohibitions, 269. a; n6 omit- 
ted after, 331. 7 R. 

caveo, constr., 331. 

-ce, enclitic, 100 and foot-n., ror. a and 
foot-n. 





Lndex of Words and Subjects. 


Ceasing, vbs. of, w. complem. inf., 271. 

céd6, constr., 226, N. 2. 

celeber, decl., 84. a. 

celer, forms, 84. a, ¢ 

cél14, w. acc., 239. a. 

Celtibér, decl., 41. d. 

cénseo, constr., 331 and d, 

certé6, certo, use, 151. c; in answers, 
212. a. 

cété, Greek pl., 39. 4. 

cétera, 82. d; adverbial use, 240. 4; 
-uS, use, 193; -1, use, 203. a. 

ceu, use, 312. 

-ceus, ad., ending, 164. 2. 

Characteristic, clause of, 320, 

Characteristic, expr. by participle, 292, 

Characteristic vowel, 32, 351. 

Charge and penalty, gen. of, 220. 

chelys, decl., 63. 2, 64. 

Chiasntus, 344. f, and N. 

Choliambic trimeter, 365. ¢c. 

Choosing, vbs. of, w. 2 acc., 239. a. 

Choriambic verse, 370. N. 

Choriambus, 356. é. 

ci and ti, interchange of, 12. a. 

-cinium, noun ending, 163. 7 

cinnabari, indecl. 67. a. 

-ci6, diminutive ending, 164. a. R. 

cip-, stems in, decl. III., 45. a. : 

circa, circum, circiter, use, 152. a, 
153; as advs., 261. d. 

circa, after a noun, 263. N.; w. gerund, 
300. 

circum, compounds w. vbs., 170. @; 
dat. w. such comps., 228; acc., 237. d. 

circumdo6, constr., 225. d. 

Circumflex accent, I9. N. 

circumfundo, constr., 225. d. 

Circumstances of act, 255 and d. 5; par- 
ticiple implying, 292. 

cis, citerior, 91. a. 

Cities, gend. of names of, 29. 2 and 4, 

citra, after its noun, 263. N. 

Civis, -6s, decl., 51. a. 

cladés, decl., 59. 

clam, constr., 261. ¢. 

Classes, names of, gend. of, 28. d; used 
in plu., 76. 2. 

Clauses, defined, kinds of, 180; replaced 
by abl. abs., 255. @; used as nouns, 
214. a; dependent, syntax of, 316-342 
incl.; conditional, 316; final, 317, 318; 
consecutive, 319, 320; causal, 321; 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


temporal, 322-328; substantive, 329- 
339 incl.; infinitive clauses, 330; sub- 
stantive clauses of purpose, 331; of re- 
sult, 332; indic. with quod, 333; in- 
direct questions, 334; indirect dis- 
course, 335-342. 

clavis, decl., 57. 3. 

Clienta (fem. form), 28. 43 85. ¢. 

Close syllables, 14. @ 

coepl, 143. a. 

Cognate acc., 148. d. N., 237. ¢ N., 238, 
240. a. 

Cognomen, 80, @ 

Collective noun with pl. verb, 205. ¢. 

colus, gend., 69. a; decl., 78. I. a 

com- (con-), compounded w. vbs., 170. 
a; such take dat., 228. 

Combinations of words, 13. 

cométés, decl., 37. 

comitium, comitia, 79. ¢. 

comitor, constr., 227. 3 

Command, see Imperative; in hortatory 
subj., 266, 

Commanding, vbs. of, w. dat., 227; w. 
inf., 330. 2 and 4, 2; w. subj., 331. @ 
(cf. 332. 2). 

Commands, expressed by imv., 269; for 
condition, 310, 4; in indir, disc., 339; 
in informal ind. disc., 341. a 

commiseror, w. acc., 221. 4, 

committ6 ut, 332 and és 

Common gender, 30; adjs, of, 88, 3. 

Common syllables, 18. ¢, 347. @ 

commonefaci6, -f16, constr., 219. ¢. 

commone6, constr., 219. ¢ 

comminis, w. gen., 218. d. 

commiutare, constr., 252, ¢. 

Comparative conjunctions, 154. 5, 2, 155; 
in conditions, 312, 

Comparative suffix, 89, foot-n; of advs., 
148. d. 

Comparatives, decl., 86; stem, id. a; 
neut. sing. of comp. adj, used as adv., 
92; meaning of, 93. a; two compare 
atives, I92; comp. and positive w. 
quam, id,; abl. w. comp., 247; quam 
w. comp., id. a; compar. w. quam 
(ut), quam qul, 320, ¢, 332. 4. 

Comparison, conjunctions of, 208. a, 

Comparison of adjs., 89; irregular, 90; 
defective, 91; w.magis and maximé, 
89. d; of advs., 92; prepositions im- 
plying, with quam, 262, 





455 


Comparison, particles of, tamquam, 
quasi, etc., constr., 312. 

Complementary infinitive, 271; has no 
subject, id. N.; pred. noun or adj. 
after, id. ¢; inf. partly subject, partly 
complementary, 270. 4. 

Completed action, tenses of, 115; how 
formed, 126. 7, g; in the pass., 147. 0; 
use of, 279. 

comple6, constr., 248. ¢. R., 223. 

Complex conditional sentences, 311. d. 

Complex sentence, 180, 4. 

complirés, compliria, 86, 3. 

compos, decl., 87. 4, d. 

Composition, all word-formation a pros 
cess of, p. 140; comp. to express rela- 
tions of words, pp. 205, 235. 

Compound sentence, defined, 180. 

Compound stems, imaginary, 164. 7. 

Compound suffixes, 160, 4, 161. 

Compound verbs, 170; comps. of faci6, 
142. a, 3. 

Compound words, assimilation in, 11. /; 
defined, 168; how formed, 168-170, 

Compounds of preps., w. dat., 228; of ab, 
dé, ©X, 229; w. acc., 237. d, 239. d; 
quantity of, 354. ¢. 

con-, see Com-, 

Conative present, 
277. C 

concéd5, constr., 331 and ¢. 

Concession, hortatory subj. of, 266 and 
¢ (cf. 313. @, 2); particles of, 313; 
quamvis, ut, né, 313. a; licet, id. 4; 
etsI, etc., id. ¢; cum, id. d}; quam- 
quam, id. ¢, g; quamvis, w. indic., 
id. g; vbs. of, w. ut, 331. ¢; abl. abs. 
for concess, clause, 255. d. 3; conces- 
sion implied in part., 292; qui con- 
cessive, 320. ¢ 

Concessive clauses, see Concession. 

Concessive conjunctions, 154. 3. 3, T55¢ 
@, g; foll. by adversative, 156. 4 jo Nes 
particles, use of, 313. 

Conclusion, see Apodosis, 

Concords, the four, 182, 

concors, decl., 85. 4, 87. a. 

Condemning, vbs. of, constr., 220. 

Conditional clauses, defined, 180. d. 

Conditional conjunctions, 154, 4% 1, 
155. ¢ 

Conditional sentences, defined, 180, d; 
development, 304, head-n.; protasis 


276. 4; imperfect, 


456 


and apodosis, 304; classification, 305; 
Pres. and Past, nothing implied, 306; 
Future conditions, 307; fut. more vivid, 
id. a, ¢; fut. less vivid, id. 4, ¢; perf. 
indic. in fut. cond., id. ¢; Contrary to 
fact, 308; indic. in cont, to fact condi- 
tion, id. 4, cf. ¢; General condition, 
309; condition disguised, 310; as part., 
etc., id. @; as exhortation or com- 
mand, id. ; protasis omitted,311; Poten- 
tial Subjunc., id. a; Subjunc. of Mod- 
esty, id. 4; vbs. of necessity, etc., id. ¢; 
complex conditions, id. @; Particles of 
Comparison (conclusion omitted), 312; 
Concessive clauses, 313; Proviso, 314; 
use of si and its comps., 315; condi- 
tional relative clauses, 316; temporal, 
322, 327. 6; conditional sentences in 
ind. disc., 337. 

Conditional Particles, 312, 

confids, constr., 254 4. and N. 

Conjugation, defined, 26. Conjugation 
of verbs, 122~147; how distinguished, 
122, a; regular forms of, 125. ¢; mixed 
forms, id. d; parallel forms, 134; stem- 
vowels of conjugations, 122-125; stems 
of the four conjugations, how modified, 
126; paradigms of the four regular con- 
jugations, pp. 92-105. 

Conjunctions, defined, 25. 2; classes of, 
154; list of, 155; use of, 1563; correla- 
tive use, id. 2; conjs. repeated, id. 

‘ SYNTAX of conjs., 208; omitted, id. 4; 
use together, id. ¢. 

Conjunctive adverb, 25. 2. N. 

Conjunctive phrase, 154. N. 2. 

Coniunctivus modestiae, 311. d. 

Connecting vowel (so-called), p. 87, 
foot-n. 

Connectives, relatives used as, 180. 7 

conor, w. inf., 331. ¢. 1; Conor si, 
id. N. 

Consecutive clauses, defined, 180. e; of 
charact, and result, 319, 320. 

Consecutive conjunctions, 154. 4, 4, 155. 2. 

consequor ut, 332. 

cOnsistere, w. abl. 244. ¢, foot-n., 
254 6. 

Consonants, classification, 2; changes, 
II; omission, id, 4; insertion, id. ¢; 
transposition, id, d, 124. a. N.; dissimi- 
lation, 11. ¢; assimilation, id. 7; pro- 
nunciation, 16, 17. 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


Consonant stems of nouns, decl. IIT., 44- 
50; stems apparently ending in two con. 
sonants, 54.1, cons. stems of adjs., 85; 
case-forms, 87; of verbs, 166. @. 3. 

Consonant suffixes (primary), 160, ¢. 2, 

consors, decl., 87. a. 

constare, w. abl., 244. ¢ 

cdnstitud, constr., 331. d. 

Constrictid ad sensum, See Synesis, 

Constriactid praegnans, 238. b. 

Constructions of cases, 213-263 (see 
under abl., etc.). 

consu6vi, use, 279. ¢. 

consul, decl., 49. 

consularis, decl., 57. a. 

consulo, w. dat. or acc., 227, ¢, 

Contention, words of, constr., 229. ¢, 
248. 3. 

contentus, w. abl., 254. 4; w. perf. inf., 
288. é, 

contin6ri, w. abl., 244. ¢, foot-n. 

contingit ut, 332. 

Continued action, tenses of, 115. 

Continuing, vbs. of, w. compl. inf., 271. 

contra, derivation, 148. N. 8; use, 152. 
a, 153, 188. @. 2, 254. 0; as adv., 261; 
position, 263. N. 

Contracted forms, vin, scin, 13. ¢; gen, 
in -1, dat. and abl. in -is, 40. 3. 

Contracting, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d. 

Contraction of vowels, 10. 4; quantity, 
18. ¢; in prosody, 347. ¢; of syllables, 
355: a. 

Contrary to fact, conditions, 308° in ind, 
disc., 337. 3. 


| convenis, w. acc., 228, a. 


Co-ordinate conjunctions, 154 @ 155. 
a-d; co-ord, clauses, 180. a; co-ord. 
words without conj., 208. 4; w. conj., 
id. 

Copula, 172. N., 
344+ js 

Copulative conjunctions, 154. @. I, 155. 
a; constr, after, 208; use of, 208. 4 

Copulative verbs, 172. N., 176 a. 

cor, decl., 67. d, 77. 6. 

corpus, decl., 49. 

Correlatives, 106, 107; rendered by as, 
106. 6; by the... the, id. ¢; advs. of 
place, 149. @; conjs., 156. 2, 208. d; 
correlative in main clause, w. final 
clause, 317. a 

cos, decl., 77, & 


176. a; position of, 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


Countries, names of, gend., 29. 2 and 4; 
as end of motion, and place from 
which, 258. N. 2. 

Crasis, 347. C. 

cratér, decl., 63. 4 

créber, decl., 82. c. 

crédibili, w. comparative, 247. 8. 

créd6, position of, 345. ¢. 

Cretic foot, 356. d; verse, 374. ¢. 

Crime or charge, gen. of, 220. 

-crum, noun-ending, 163. d. 

crux, decl., 77. 6. 

cucumis, decl., 56. a. 

cuicuimodi, 105. 4. N. 

cuias, ciiius, ros. 7 

ctiiusmodi, ats. a. 

-culum, noun suffix, 163. d. 

-culus, dim. ending, 164. a. 

cum, quom (conj.), form, 104. /; mean- 
ing, 156.7; Cum... tum, 107, 156, 
h, 208. d; with clause for part., 290. ¢, 
d, 326. 6; causal, 321; concess., 313. 
d; causal or conces., 326; temporal, 
322, 325; sequence, 287, ¢. N.; in ind, 
disc., 336. B. a. N. 2. 

cum (prep.), 152. 4; joined as enclitic 
with pronouns, 99. ¢, 104. ¢, e¢; use of, 
153; in comp., see com; with plur, 
adj., 186. d@ N.; with plur. verb, 205; 
with abl. of manner, 248; with abl. of 
accompaniment, 248. a; with words of 
contention, 248. 4; with words of ex- 
change, 252. ¢; w. abl. of gerund, 301. 

-cumque, added to relatives, 105. a and 
N.; temporal particles with, 322. 

-cundus, verbal adj. ending, 164. 2. 

cup-, stem-ending, 45. a. 

cupio, constr., 331. d and N. 

cir6, constr., 331; Ctir& (imv.), use, 
269. 2. 

-Cus, nouns in, decl. IV.,70. d; -cus, suf- 
fix, 159. N., 164. 2. 9. 

Customary action, 277, 3°9. b 

cust6s, decl., 67. d. 


D changed to 8, 11. a. 2; -d final an- 
ciently t, 12. ¢; -d in abl., decl, I., 36. 
J; deci. Il., 40. 7; decl. III., 62. a; 
decl. IV., 7o. 4; m6d, téd, 98. 1. ¢; 
-6 in advs. originally -6d, 148. a. N.; 
-d as neut. pron. ending, p. 49, foot-n. 
2; loss of -d, p. 245. 

Dactyl, 356. 4; cyclic, id. N, 





457 


Dactylic verse, 360; hexameter, 363; ele- 
giac stanza, 363; other forms, 364. 

-dam, adverbial ending, 148. N. y. 

damnas, indecl. adj., 87.4 

Daphné, decl., 37. 

Daphnis, decl., 63. 2, 64, 

daps, defect., 77. 7; increment of, 350. 

Daring, vbs. of, w. compl. inf., 277. 

Dates, how expressed, 259. ¢, 376. 

DATIVE defined, 31. ¢; in -&i, decl. I., 36. 
a; in -Gbus, decl. I., 36. ¢; in -is for 
-tis, decl. II., 40. 4; in -ubus, decl. 
IV., 70. d@; in -I (of tinus, etc.), 83; 
as adv., p. 123. N. y. 

DATIVE, Syntax, 224-236. Indirect ob- 
ject, 224; uses of, id.; with transi- 
tives, 225; use of G6nG, etc., id. d; 
in pass., 225. ¢; with intransitives, 
226; with phrases, id. a; like gen., 
id. 4; with intransitives, verbs mean- 
ing favor, etc., 227; verbs having dat. 
or acc., 227. ¢; with verbal nouns, 
id. d; with comps. of satis, etc., id. 
é; with comps. of prep. ad, ante, 
etc., 228; with comps. of ab, dé, ex, 
229; poetic use, 229. ¢; with passive 
used impersonally, 230. Of Possession, 
231; with comps. of esse, id. a; with 
nomen est, id. 4. Of Agency, 232. 
Of Service, 233; with adjs. or adverbs, 
234; with adjs. of fitness, etc., 234. a; 
with similis, id.R. Of Reference, 235; 
ethical dat., 236. With words of con- 
tention (poetic), 248. 4. Of End of 
Motion, 258. N. 1; w. infin., 272. a; 
dat. of gerund, 299. (Note on, p. 218.) 

Dativus commodi aut incommodi, 235. N. 

dé, use, 152. 4, 153; in comp. w. vbs., 
170, a; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 229; 
in comp. w. vbs., w. abl., 243. 3; w. 
abl. instead of part. gen., 216. ¢; w. 
vbs. of reminding, 219. ¢ N.3 w. abl, 
to denote the crime, 220, ¢; w. place 
from which, 258; position of a6, 263. 
N.; G6 w. abl. of gerund, gor, 

dea, decl., 36. 4 

débed, in apod., 308. ¢. 

débui, w. pres. inf., 288. a. 

décerno, constr., 331. d. 2. 

decet, w. acc., 237.¢; w. dat., id. N. 2; 
in apodosis, 308. ¢ 

Declarative sentence, 171. a; how ex 
pressed in ind. disc., 336, 


458 


Declension defined, 26; characteristics 
of, 32; general rules for, 33; termina- 
tions, 34. Of Nouns, L, 35-37; II., 38- 
43; IIL. 44-67; 1V., 68-71; V., 72-74; 
decl, IV. compared with IIIL., 68. N.; 
decl. V. comp. with I.,74. 4. Of Adjs., 
decl, I.-II., 81-83; decl. III., 84-85; 
of comparatives, 86; of participles, 85. 
a, b 

Decreeing, verbs of, 331. d. 

agédi, as reduplicated stem, 117. N.; 
quantity of penult, 351. 3. 

Defective nouns, 75; in number, 76; in 
case-forms, 77; of decl, IV.,71. 4; of 
decl. V., 74. @. 

Defective adjectives, 82. @, 87. f- 

Defective comparison, 91. 

Defective verbs, 143-144. 

Defective verb-forms, 110, 143, 144. 

défends, constr., 227. a. 

aéficié, constr., 227. a. 

~ Definite perfect, 115. ¢. I, 279; sequence 
of, 287. a. 

Definitions of Syntax, 171-181; of figures 
in grammar, rhetoric, and prosody, 
Pp. 429. ff. 

défit, 142. ¢ 

dégener, 85. 3. N., 87. a. 

Degree, adverbs of, 149. ¢ 

Degrees of Comparison, 89. 

Degree of difference, abl. of, 250; dis- 

_ tance expressed by, 257. 

deinde, dénique, in enumerations, 
Ist. ad. 

délectat, constr., 237. ¢. 

~ délectd, w. acc., 227, a. 

délector, w. abl., 254. 3. 

Deliberative subjunctive, 268; in indir, 
questions, 334. 4; in indir. disc., 338. a. 

délicium, -ia, -iae, 78. 2. 4. 

Delivering, vbs. of, w. genitive, 294. d. 

D6los, decl., 43. 

delphin, decl., 63. a, cf. 67. . 

-dem, adverbial ending, 148. N. 7. 

Demanding, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d. 

Demonstrative adverbs, as correlatives, 

, 107; equivalent to demonstr. pron. w. 
prep., 207.a. Position, 344. 4. 

Demonstrative pronouns, 100-102; decl., 
tor; of Ist person, 102. a; of 2d pers., 
id. ¢: of 3d pers., id. 4; supply place 
of pers, prons. of 3d. pers., 194. ¢, 195; 
formation, p. 65, foot-note. 





Syntax, 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


195; in relative clause, 20%. ¢. N. Po 
sition, 344. 3. 

dénarius, value of, 377. 

Denominative verbs, 165, 166, 

Dependent clauses, subj. used in, 265. 4. 

Dependent constructions, N., p. 227. 

Deponent verbs defined, 111. 4; how 
conjugated, 122. N,; paradigms, 135; 
participles, id. a; fut. inf., id. ¢; used 
reflexively, 135. ¢; in passive sense, 
id. 7, list of irreg. deponent verbs, 
135. 4; defective deponents, id, é; 
semi-deponents, 136, 

Depriving, constr, with verbs of, 243. a. 

Derivation of Words, 157-170. 

Derivative forms of nouns, 162, 163; of 
adjs., 164; of verbs, 166, 167. 

Derivative verbs, defined, 165. 

Derivatives, quantity of, 354. 

-dés, nouns in, 164. 4 

Description, imperf. used in, 115. 3 
scription implied in part., 292. 

Descriptive abl., see abl. of quality, 

déses, decl., 87. 4. 

Desiderative verbs (in -urid), 167. 4 

Desire, adjs. of, w. gen., 218. a. 

déspéro, constr., 227. 2. 

déterior, comp. of, 91. d. 

Determinative compounds, 168, 4, 

Determining, vbs. of, constr., 321. @. 

deus, decl., 4o. 2 

dexter, decl., 82.4; comp. go. 

di- see dis-. 

Dieresis, 358. ¢. 

Diastolé, 359. f: 

dic, imperative, 128. ¢ 

diciGnis, defect., 77. 5. 

dic, forms of, omitted, 206. ¢. 

dict6, w. comp., 247. & 

-dicus, adjs. in, comparison of, 89. ¢. 

Did6, decl., 63. 2, 64. 

diem dicere, w. dat. of gerund, etc, 
299. @. 

diés, decl., 72; gender, 73; form dii, 
74> & 

Difference, abl. of, degree of, 250. 

difficilis, comparison, 89. 4; constr., 

303. R. 

dignor, with abl., 245 @. 2. 

dignus, with abl., 245. a; with relative 
clause, 320. ft 

Dimeter, Iambic verse, 366. ¢. 

Diminutive endings, with comparatives. 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


89. 7; mouns and adjectives, 164. a; 
verbs, 167. @. 

din-, stem-ending, 48. 4. 

Diphthongs, 1; sound of, 16, 17; quan- 
tity, 18. 3, 347. 3. 

Diptotes, 77. 3. 

Direct cases, 31. g. N. 

Direct object, 177, 237. 

Direct question, defined, p. 201, 

Direct quotation, 335 and R, 

Direct reflexive, 196. a. I. 2 

Direction, 235. 3. 

dis- (di), inseparable prefix, 170. 4, 

Disjunctive conjunctions, 155. @; case of 
noun after, 208. 

Dissimilation, 11. ¢. 

dissimilis, comp., 89. 

Distance, acc, or abl., 257. 4.; of time, 
259. a. 

Distributive numerals, 95; use, 95 2. 

Distributive pronouns, 202, @, ¢. 

dit, comp., 92. 

dives, decl., 85. 3, 87. @. 

divim (div6m), for deSrum, 4o. 7 

d6, with inf., 273. a. 

-d6, adverbial ending, 148. N. 7. 

-d6, nouns in, from st. din-, 48. 4; gend., 
65. 6° 67. 4. 

doceé, constr., 239. c and d. N. 

domi, locative, 258. d. 

domus, gend. 69. a; decl., 70. f; double 
stem of, 70. f; locative form, 70. g, p. 
40, foot-n. 

domum, 258. id. 2; dom, id. 4. 

ddnec, with ind. or subj., 328. 

d6nG, double constr, of, 225. d. 

dos, decl., 54. 2. 

Double consonants, 3. a, 18. @ 


Double questions, 211; answers to, 
212. 6. 

Doubting, vbs. of, constr., 319. d@. 

Doubtful gender, 30. a. 


Dual forms, p. 60, foot-n. 

Dubitative subj., see Deliberative, 

dubitd an, 210. fR.; non dubitd 
quin, 332. g. R.; n6n dubit6, w. inf, 
id. N. 2, 

dtic, imperative, 128. ¢. 

dum, derivation, 148, N. »; with present, 
276. ¢; with past, id.N; with clause for 
pres. and perf, partic., 290, ¢,@; w.sub- 
junctive of proviso, 314, 328; of time, 
328; of purpose, 328. 





459 


dummodo, 314, 328. 

duo, decl., 94. 4. 

datipli, with verbs of condemning, 220, a, 

Duration, acc. of, 240. ¢, 256; abl. of, 
256. d 

-dus, participle in. See Gerundive, 

Duty, vbs. of, in apod., 308. ¢. 

dux, decl., 46. 


©, inserted in decl. II., 42; abl. of neu- 
ters in, 57.2, 3; final, quantity of, 348. 
5; @, stem-vowel, conj. II., 122, 123. a, 
126. 6; 4, stem-vowel, conj. III., 122, 
123. 4, 126. ¢. 

e as adv, ending, 148. @, ¢ 

-e neuters in, decl, III., 57. a, 65. ¢,67.a. 

-e, abl. of adjs. of 2 and 3 terminations, 
84, 4. N., 85, 87. a 

6 shortened in future, p. 89, foot-n. 3. 

6 in stem of decl. V..72, 

6 (preposition). See ex, 

-6, Gr. voc., 63. 2; in gen. of decl. V., 74. 
a; in dat., id. 

-6 for ae (0e), 12, ¢, 16. N. > 

e& Causa, 317. 2, 

-ebus, 107. ¢ 

eae, IOI. c 


Early forms of alphabet, 6-7; of presony, 


P- 423- 


| ebur, decl., 49. 


ecce (eccum, etc.), 101. d 

ecquis, decl., 105. @; meaning, ¢, 

Ecthlipsis, 359. @ 

6dic6, constr., 331. d. 2. 

edo (eat), conj., 140. 

Effecting, verbs of, with perf, part., 271. 
@; with ut-clause, 332. 4. 

efficid ut, 332. 

effierl, 142. ¢. 

effigiés, decl., 74. d 

Effort, verbs of, with perf, part., 292. d; 
with clause of result, 331. ¢. 

egéns, decl., 85. 

eged, Souci, , 223, 243. 0 

ego, decl., 98. 

ei, diphthong, 1; sound of, 16, 17. ¢ 

is, patronymic, 164. 3. 

-6ius, patronymic, 164. 4. 

-6ius, adj. ending, 164. ¢; in Prosody, 
347. d, N. I. 

Siusmodi, rot. ¢, 218. 4. 

Electra, decl., 27. 


Elegiac stanza, 363. 


460 


eleph&ns, 63. ¢. 

-6lis, -6nus, adj. endings, 164. ¢, ad. 

Elision, 359. ¢. 

Ellipsis, 177. ¢. N. 

Elliptical sentence, 177. é. N. 

6éllum, etc., tot. d. 

-ellus, diminutive ending, 164. a. 

éluviés, decl., 74. d. 

Emphasis, 344. 

-6n, nouns in, 67. 6; -6n, nouns in, id. 

én, w. demonstrative, ror. @. 

Enclitics, accent, 19. ¢; quantity, 348. 1; 
Cum, 99. ¢, 104. ¢, ¢; -met, -te, -pte, 
99. /; “PS, 100. ¢, p. 67, foot-n.; -que, 
see under that word. 

End of motion, acc. of, 258; w. vbs, that 
also take dat., 225, 0; dat. of, 258, N. I 
two or more places as end of motion, 
259. 2. 

Endings, signification of, 161-167; end- 
ings of verb, 117.2, 118. See Personal 
Endings, and Terminations, 

English derivatives from Lat., spelling 
of, 15; Eng. words cognate with Lat., 
id. 

English method of pronunciation, 17. 

enim, use, 156, @; position, 156. 4, 
345. 5. 

-6nsimus (or -6simus), numeral adj. 
ending, 94. N. 

-6nsis, gentile ending, 164. ¢ 

Enumeration, primum ,.. deinde, 
15. @. 

-6nus, adj. ending, 164. ¢ 

Envy, verbs of, w. dat., 227. 

ed, used w. supine in -um, 258 R., 
302, R. 

ed, used with qu, 106, ¢; w. compar., 
250. R.; approaching abl. of cause, 
250. N. 

eS consilid6 ut, 317. 2. 

Epicene nouns, 30. 4, 

Epistolary tenses, 282, 

epitome, decl., 37. 

epulum, pl. -ae, 78. 2. 6 

equester, decl., 84. a. 

er, primary suffix, see as, 

er-, stem-ending, 48. d. 

-er, nom, ending, decl. IT., 41-43; decl. 
III., 48. ¢, 53. 4, 54.1; gend., 65. a, 67. 
a, 6; -er in adjs., 82,84. @; comp. of 
these, 89. a. 

erga, w. acc. after adjs., 234. ¢ 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


erg5d, use, 156. ¢; w. gen., 223. ¢. 

-erim, -erd, as tense-ending, 

-ernus, adj. ending, 164. ¢ 

ero-, noun stems in, decl, II., 41; 6ro, 
adj. stems in, 82, a, 

ES, root of eSS@, II. a; p. 83, note, 

-6s, in nom. pl, of Gr. nouns, 63. /; 
gend. of nouns in, 65. a. 

-Ss, -idis (-Itis); -6s,-édis; -ds, -8dis; 
-6s, -6tis; -6s, -6tis, nouns in, 67. da. 

-6s, nom, ending, 67. @; list of nouns in 
$1, foot-n.; gend., 65. 4; formation, 
163. @. 

-6s, gen. of Greek nouns in, decl. II., 43. 
a; gen, ending, decl. V., 74. a 

esse, conj., 119; forms of, in other lan- 
guages, p. 83, note; compounds of, 
120; case after, 176. 6; dat. of poss, 
W., 231; future part, w., 293. @, ¢5 po- 
sition of forms of, 344. ¢, 7. 

est, united with other words, 13. 4; est 
qui, 320.a; est CUM, 322. R.; est ut, 
332+ 2. 3» 

Esteeming, verbs of, constr., 239. a. 

-ester (-estris), adj. ending, 164. ¢; a 
noun-ending, 164. z. 12. 

et, use, 156.@; et... et, 156.2; et re- 
peated or omitted, 208, 4. 1. 

etenim, use, 156. d, 208. & 

Ethical dative, 236, 

etiam, use, I5I. a; in answers, 212, 2, 

etiamsi, concessive, 313. ¢ 

etsi, use, 156. 2; 313. ¢ 

-6tum, noun-ending, 164, 4 8. 

ETYMOLOGY, I-170, 

Euphonic change, see Phonetic change. 

-eus, Greek names in, 43; -eus (-6us), 
patronymic ending, 164. 4; adj. end 
ing, 164. ¢, 2, % 10. 

évenit ut, 332. 

ex (6), 152.4; use, 153, 260, 5, 244. a. 
R.; in compounds, 170. a, 243. 4; abl. 
w., instead of part. gen., 216, cy ex- 
pressing position, 260, 4; in vbs. w. 
dat., 229; to express place from which, 
258; after its noun, 263. N.; w. abl. of 
gerund, 301. 

-6x (-6x), nouns in, 67. ¢ 

excelld, w. dat., 227, a. 

Exchanging, vbs. of, 252. ¢ 

Exclamation, form of, 210. ¢& R.; acc, 
in, 240. @; w. infin., 274; nom. in, 
241. & 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


Exclamatory sentences, 171. ¢; acc. in, 
240. @; nom, in, 241. ¢. 

Exclamatory questions, 332. ¢. 

Existence, general expressions of, 320. a. 

exl6x, defect., 87. 7< 3. 

Expecting, hoping, etc., vbs. of, w. infin. 
clause, 330. 7. 

expénsum, 292. N. 2. 

Explosives, see Mutes, 

exsilid, exsult6, w. abl., 245. a. 2. 

exspé6s, defect, 87. / 

exsult, w. abl., 245. a. 2. 

exteri, use, 91. 4. 

exterior, 91. 3. 

extrémus, form, p. 56, foot-n. 

exud, constr., 225. d. 


faber, decl., 82. ¢. 

fac, imv., 128. ¢, 142; use, 269.2; fac 
né6, in prohibition, 269. a. 

faciés, decl., 74 d. 

facilis, comp., 89. 4; constr., 303. R. 

faci6, forms of, omitted, 206. ¢; w. abl., 
244. d; accent of comp. of, 19. ad. 1; 
faci6, w. names of authors, 292. ¢. N.; 
facere ut, 332 and e, 

Factitative acc., p. 235; verbs, 175. 4. N. 

-fact6, in compounds, 169. a. 

faenebris, decl., 84. a. N 

faex, decl., 77. 6. 

fallit, w. acc., 237. ¢. 

falsus, comp., 91. d. 

famé6s, abl. of, 57. ¢, cf. p. 41, foot-n, 1. 

familiaris, decl., 57. 2. 

familias, in pater familias, etc., 36, 4. 

far, decl., 67. &. 

fas indecl., 77. 1; w. supine in -0i, 303. 

faux, decl., 54. 2, 77- 5, 79. ¢s 

Favor, verbs of, w. dat., 227. 

fax, decl., 77. 6. 

Fearing, verbs of, w inf., 271; (n6, ut), 
331. f- 

febris, decl., 56. 6, 57-4. 

Feeling, nouns of, with gen., 217; imper- 
sonal verbs of, 146. 4, 221.4; anim, 
with adjs. of, 218. ¢. R.; gen. with verbs 
of, 221; animi, w. vbs, of, 223. ¢, acc. 
with, 237. 6; with quod-clause, 333. 2. 

Feet in Prosody, 355-357; Ne, P- 405. 

fel, decl., 67. 4. 

félix, comp., 89. 

Feminine, rule for gender, 29. 

femur, decl., 78. 1. 7. 





461 


-fer, compounds of, 41; decl., 82. 3. 

fer, imperative, 128. ¢. 

ferd, conj., 139; acceptum (expén- 
sum) ferre, 2092. N. 2. 

Festivals, plural names of, 76. 1. 

-ficus, adjs. in, comparison of, 89. ¢. 

fidés, decl., 72. 

fidS (cOnfidS), semi-deponent, 136; 
with abl., 254. 3 

fidus, comp.,, 91. @. 

fieri, constr. with abl., 244. @. 

Fifth declension, 72-74. 

figura etymologica, 344. m. 

filia, decl., 36. ¢; filius, voc., 40. c. 

Filling, words of, with abl., 248. ¢. 2. 

Final Clauses, defined, 180. ¢; constr. of, 
317, 318; as subst. clauses, 331. 

Final conjunctions, 154. 0. 5, 155. z 

Final syllables,. rules of quantity, 348; 
vowels, id. 1-8. 

finis, decl., 57. 3. 

Finite verb, defined, 173. N.; subject of, 
173; I: 

£16, conj., 142; in compounds, id. 4; de- 
fective compounds of, id. c; quantity 
of 1 in, 347. a, 3. 

First declension, 35-37. 

First conjugation, prin, parts, 122. ¢; pres. 
stem, how formed, 123. @; formation, 
126. a, 166, a; paradigms, pp. 92-95; 
verbs of, 130; verbs of, how formed, 
166. a. 

fisus, as pres. part., 290. 5. 

fit ut, 332. 2 

Fitness, adjs. of, w. dat., 234. a, 6. 

flagitG, constr., 331. 

floccl, gen. of value, 252. 2. 

For, when expressed by pro, 236. R. 

fords, 77. 3, 148. N. ¢. 

fore, 147. c, fore ut, 288. f, 332. ¢. 

forem, 119. R. 

forés. pl. only, 76. 3. 

Forgetting, vbs. of, 219; w. inf., 271. 

foris (locative), 77. 3, 148. N. 8, 258. @. 

Formation of words, 157-170. 

Forms of the verb, 117. ff. 

fors, forte, 77. 3. 

forsitan (fors sit an), 148. N. 6; (for- 
San), 311. 2. 

Fourth Conjugation, prin. parts, 122. ¢: 
pres. stem, how formed, 123. a, 126. @; 
paradigm, p. 104; list of verbs, 133; 
verbs, how formed, 166, @. 


* 


462 


Fourth Declension, 68-71. 

Fractional expressions, 97. d@, 382. 

Freedom, adjs. of, with abl., 243. 7; vbs. 
of, 243. @. 

Frequentative verbs, 167. 3. 

French, derivations through, 15, foot-note. 

frétus, with abl., 254. 4. 

Fricatives, 3. a. 
frfigi, defect. noun, 77. 5; as adj., 87. 
yf; comparison, 90; constr., 233. a. N. 
fruor, fungor, with abl., 249; w. acc., 

id. 4; gerundive, 296. R. 
fugit, w. acc., 237. ¢. 

ful, derivation of, 120. N. 

Fulness, adjs. of, 218. a. 

fiinebris, decl., 84. a. N. 

fungor, see fruor. 

fiir, decl., 54. 2. 

Future Conditions, 307; 
337: a. 

Future Tense, use, 115. a2. 1, 278; of in- 
finitive pass., how formed, 147. ¢; indic- 
ative for imper., 264. ¢, 269. 7; of 
imperative, 269. d@; uses of, 278; in 
indirect questions, 334. a; fut. ind. for 
imv., 269. 2 

Future Perfect, 115. a, 1; use of, 281; 
represented in subj., 286. R.; in condi- 
tions, 307. ¢ 

Future Infinitive, how formed, 11o. d.; 
expressed with fore or futtirum 
esse, 288. 7; (rarely) in contrary to 
fact conditions in ind. disc., 337. 4. N. 


in ind. disc., 


3 
Future Participle, use, 113. 4, 290, 293, 
308. d; fut. pass. part., 294. 
Future Perfect Subjunc. wanting, 110. a, 
Future Subjunctive wanting, 110, a 
futtirum esse ut, see fore ut; futi- 
rum fuisse ut, 337. 4. 3 and N. 2. 
Futurum in preteritd, p. 320, foot-note. 


G (the character), 6. 

Games, plural names of, 76, 1. 

gauded, conj., 136; with ne, 254. 3; w. 
quod or ind. disc., 333. 3. 

Gems, gender of, names ve 2and 4, 29, 


39. @. 

Gender, kinds of, 28; general rules for, 
29; common, doubtful, epicene, 30; 
change of gend., p. 21, foot-n.; nouns, 
decl. I., gend., 35; decl. II., 39; nouns, 
decl. III., gend. according to endings, 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


65; according to stems, 66; of nouns, 
decl. 1V., 69; decl. V., 73; Syntax, 
agreement in gend., 181; of appositives, 
184. 6; of adjs., 186; adjs. with nouns 
of different genders, 187, cf. 189. ¢; of 
tel., 199. 3. 

General conditions, defined, 304. @; 
constr. of, 309; relatives in, 316. a. 

General truths after past tense (in 
sequence of tenses), 287. d; in pres., 
276; in general condition, 309. a. 

GENITIVE. Ztymology. Definition, 31.4; 
terminations of, 32; plural in -um, 33; 
gen, in -&i and -&is, decl. I., 36. a, 4; 
in -I for il, decl. II., 40.4; in -» of prop, 
nouns of decl. III., 43. a; gen. plur. in 
-im (-6m), for Orum, go. +; -um 
for -ium, decl. III.,59; -6s for -is, 63. 
JF; contracted in decl. IV., 68, N.3; gen. 
plur, in -um, 70. ¢; in -i or -6 for -8I, 
decl. V., 74. a; gen. plu. wanting, 77. 
6; of adjs, in -ius, 83; gen. plur. in 
-ium or -um, 87. ¢, d. 

GENITIVE, Syntax, 213-223; general 
use, 213. Subjective gen., 214. Pos- 
sessive gen., id. a-d; in appos. w. poss. 
pron., 197. ¢; compared w. dat., 231. 
R.; gen. in predicate, 214. ¢, d; gen. 
of adj. for neut. nom., 214. R.; gen. of 
substance or material, 214. ¢; for ap- 
positive, 214. 7; gen. of quality, or5. 
Partitive, 216. Objective gen., 217; w. 
adjectives, 218, 234. d; w. verbs of 
memory, 219; charge and penalty, 220; 
of feeling, 221; w. impers., miseret, 
etc., 221. 5; w. réfert and inter- 
est, 222; of plenty and want, 223; of 
exclamation, 223; w. potior, id.a; w. 
other vbs., id. 4; w. egeS and indig- 
e6, 223, 243. f; gen. for abl., id. £ R.; 
gen. replaced by dat., 226. 4; of value, 
215. ¢, 252.a,6; gen. of gerundive, 298. 

genius, voc. of, 40. ¢. 

g6ns, or family, names, 80, a. 

Gentile adjectives, 164. & 

gentilis, 57. a. 

gent, decl., 68; gend., 69, 4. 

genus, decl., 49. 

-ger, compounds of, 41; decl., 82. 4 

Gerund, form, 109. 4; use, 114. @; gere 
undive used instead, 296. SYNTAX, 
295-301; gen. of, 298; pred. use, 
purpose, id. R.; w. obj. gen., id. a; 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


dat. of, 299; in law phrases; etc., id. 4; 
acc, of, 300; abl. of, 301; gerund in 
apposition, 301. R. 

Gerundive, meaning and form, Io9. a, 
foot-n., 113. @; in -endus or -Un- 
dus, 12. d, p. 89, foot-n. 2; of dep. 
verb, 135. @; use as part, or adj., 
294; of fitor, id. ¢; to denote purp. 
after certain vbs., id. @; used for 
gerund, 296. Gerundive construc- 
tions in cases, gen., 298; dat., 299; 
ace., 300; abl., gor. Impersonal w. 
Sse, W, ACcc., 237. % 


% gibber, decl., 82. 2 


gin-, stem-ending, 48. 4. 

Giving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d. 

glaber, decl., 82. ¢ 

glaciés, decl., 74. d. 

glis, decl., 54. 2. 

glorior, w. abl., 254. 4. 

Glyconic verse, 369, 370, 371. I, 12. 

Gnomic perfect, 279. ¢. 

-g6, nouns in, from stem gin-, 48. 2; 
gend., 65. 4, 67. 3. 

gracilis, decl., 87. £; comp., 89. 4. 

Grammar, how developed, pp. 163, 164. 

Grammatical gender, 28. c. 

gratia, w. gen., 223. ¢, 245. ¢; w. gen. 
of gerund, 318. 

gratiae, defect, 77. 4. 

gratificor, w. dat., 227. ¢. 

gratulor, w. dat., 227. ¢. 

Greek accusative (syzecdochical), 240. ¢. 

Greek forms compared w. Latin, pp. 14, 
19, 22, 26, 47, 51, 55, 59, 78, 81, 83, 113, 
IIg, 122, 142, 143, 152, 155. 

Greek nouns, decl. I., 37; decl. II., 43; 
decl. ITI., 63, 64. 

Greek proper names, quantity of, 347. 
a. 5. 

Groups of words, conjuncs, w., 208. 2. 2. 

grits, decl., 60. a, 

Guilt, adjs. of, w. gen., 218. d. 

gummi, indecl., 67. a. 


H (breathing), 3. 4; omitted in sound, 
11. 4, 1; omitted in spelling, 12. 4; in 
Prosody, 347. 2; 359. ¢ 

habe, with infinitive, 273. @; with per- 
fect participle, 292. ¢; future imperative 
hab6t6 in sense of consider, 296. ¢. 

habilis, w.. dat. of gerund, etc., 299, 
foot-n. 





463 


h&ctenus, 260. N. 

Hadria, gender, 35. 

haec for hae, ror. a, 

haered, w. dat., 227. ¢,3; w. abl., id. N. 

Happening, verbs of, constr., 332. a. 

Have, perf. with, origin, 292. ¢, foot-n. 

havé6 (av6), defective verb, 144. 7 

Having, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 214. d. 

hebes, decl., 87. 2; comp., 89. 

Help, verbs of, with dat., 227. 

Hemiolic measures, 356. @. 

hépar, decl., 67. d. 

Heroic verse, 362. 

h6r6s, decl., 64. 

Hesitation, clauses of, w. Quin, 3109. d; 
verbs of, constr., 271. 

Heteroclite nouns, 78. 1; adjs., 87. / 

Heterogeneous nouns, 78. 2. 

Hexameter verse, 362. 

Hiatus, 359. 

hibus, ior. a. 

hic, p. 65, foot-note; decl., 101; use, 
102, a, f; quantity, 348. 10, Ex, 

hiemps (for hiems), 11. ¢, 67.¢ 

hilaris (-us), 87. 7 

Himself (ipse, 86), 102, N. 

Hindering, verbs of, with n6é or qué- 
minus, or Inf., 331. ¢ 2; 332. 


£: 

Hindrance, verbs of, with qu6éminus, 
319. ¢; with negatives, followed by 
quin, id. Z; 332. 2. 

Historical infinitive, 275, 

Historical present, 276. d; followed poy 
primary or secondary tenses, 287. ¢. 

Historical perfect, 115 ¢. 2, 279. 

hodié, loc. form, 74. ¢, 148..N. 8. 

honor (-6s), decl., 218. @. 

Hoping, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 
330. fe 

Horace, metres of, pp. 287-291. 

horiz6n, decl., 63. @. 

Hortatory subjunctive, 266; in conces- 
sion, id. ¢ (cf. 313. 2); in proviso, 314; 
in obligation, 266. a; w. force of, prot: 
asis, 310. 5. 

hortor, constr., 331. 

hospes, decl., 87. 4. 

hospita (fem. of hospes), 85. ¢. 

hiiusmodi, ror. e, 

humi, 40. a, locative use of, 258. @. 

humilis, comp., 89. 4. 

Hundreds, how declined, 94. @. 


464 


I, as vowel and as cons., p. 1, 4. 

i, primary suffix, 160, ¢. 1. 

I, in Greek voc., 63. 2,64; for 6 in conj. 
Il., 126. 6. 2; for -6 in conj. III., 126. 
¢. 1; vbs. in 16- of conj. III., id. ¢; in 
verb replaced by cons., 123. 4. 1; in- 
serted in vb. stem, id. 2; suppressed in 
obicit, etc., 10. d@; 1 (single) in gen. of 
nouns in -ius (-ium), go. 4; in gen. 
of noun in -6s, 43. a; in abl. of decl. 
III., 57; in neut. nom., 65. c; in gen, 
decl. IV., 70. a; in gen., dat., decl. V., 
74. a; in dat, of inus, etc., 83. 

-i, in perfect, 118. N. 

i- stems, decl. III., 51-59; confused, p. 
35, foot-note 2; signs of, 55; in adjec- 
tives, 81, foot-n., 84; cases retaining -i, 
84. 4, cf. 55, 57, 87. a; i-stems in verbs, 
126. a. 

-ia, nom., acc. pl. decl. III., 55. 4; of 
adjs., 84. 2. 

-ia for -iés, decl. V., 74. 4. 

-ia, ending of abstract nouns, 163. e. 

Iambic verse, 360; trimeter, 365; other 
forms, 366. 

Iambus, 356. a. 

-ibam for -iébam, conj. IV., 128. e. 

Ib6Gr, decl., 41. d. 

-1b6 for -iam, 128. ¢. 1. 

ibus, tot. ¢. 

ic- as stem-ending, 45. ¢. 

-icius, 164. 2. 

Ictus, 19 d. N.y 164. £, 355. R., 358. 2. 

-icus, -icius, 164. ¢, 2, g. 

id-, stem-ending, 63. 4. 

id genus, 240. 4. 

id quod, 200, ¢. 

id temporis, 216. a, 3; 240. 4. 

idcirc6, as correl., 156. ¢, 317. a. 

idem, decl., 101; derivation, 100. c; 
w. dat., 234. or N. 1; w. atque or rel., 
id. N. 2; used emphatically, 195. ¢; 
equiv. to adv., id. e. 

Ides (13th or sth of month), how reck- 
oned, 376. 8. 

-idés, (-id6s) in patronymics, 164. 3. 

idOneus, comparison, 89. d: w. dat. of 
gerund, etc., 299, foot-n. 

id6neus qui, 320, 7 

Idiis, decl. IV., gender, 69. a. 
Ides.) 

-idus, verbal adj. ending, 164. 2. 

-ie, in voc, of adjs. in -ius, 81. a, 


(See 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


i6ns (part of eG), decl., 85. 3. 

-ier in inf. pass., 128. ¢. 4. 

-i6s, in decl. V. = -ia, decl. I., 74. 3; 
such are &-stems, id. foot-n, 

-i6s, nom. ending, 163. e. 

igitur, meaning, 156. ¢; position, id. 2. 

ignis, decl., 57. 4. 

ii, iis, for 1, is, from is, ror. ¢. 

-ii (or -i), in gen., decl. II., 40. 4. and 
foot-n.; of adjs., 81. a. 

-Tle, noun-ending, 164. i, 6. 


-Tlis, -bilis, verbal adj. ending, 164. m. 


-Ilis, nominal adj. ending, 164. d. 

Illative conjunctions, 154. a. 4, 155. ¢. 

ille, forms too. a; decl., tor; use, I02. 
6, 7; combined with -ce, ror. 

illic, decl., ror. 

-il16, verbs ending in, 167. d. 

illus, diminutive ending, 164. a. 

illustris, decl., 84. a, N. 

-im, accus. ending, decl. III., p. 20, foot- 
Nn. 2; 55, 56. 

-im in pres, subj., 128. ¢, 2. 

imber, decl., 51. 4, 54, 57. 4, 67. a. 

immane quantum, 334. e. 

imm6, how used, 209. d. 

Imperative mood, 108. 4, tenses of, 110. 
c; how used, I12, ¢; terminations, 116, 
6, 126.e; w. iam dtiidum, 276, a. N. 
2; in commands, 269; 3d. pers., 269. ¢; 
forms in indirect discourse, 339; fut., 
269. d,¢; dic, diic, fac, fer, 128. c; 
some verbs used chiefly in, 144. /; 
various periphrases for imv., 269. 4, 2; 
Imperative as protasis, 310. 4, 

Imperative Sentence, 171. d. 

Imperfect tense, defined, 115. 4; use, 
277; in descriptions, id. a; with iam 
dit, etc., id. 4; inceptive and cona- 
tive, id. ¢; with iam, id. N.; of sur- 
prise, id. d; in dialogue, id. e; = could, 
etc., id. /; epistolary, 282; represented 
by perf. subj., 287. 4. 3; imperf. subj., 
sequence, 287.7.¢; imp. inf.,288.@.N. 1. 

imper6, constr., 331. 

Impersonal construction of pass. w. infin. 
clause, 330. a. 2, 8. I, ¢ 

Impersonal Verbs, synopsis of, 145; 
classified, 146; passive of intransitives, 
146. ¢, 230; impersonals, Miseret, 
etc., with gen., 221. 4; libet, licet, 
with dat., 227. ¢; acc. w. decet, etc. 


237. ¢. 


a 


Index of Words 


imperti6, constr., 225. a. 

impetro, constr., 331. 

impetus, defect., 77. 4. 

impleG, constr., 223, 248. ¢, R. 

implic6, constr., 225 d. 

imp6n6G, constr., 260. a 

Impure syllables, 14, ¢ 

imus, p. 56, foot-n, 

in, neg. prefix, 170. ¢. 

in, prep., use, 152. ¢, 153; comp. w. vbs., 
170, a; in, w. acc. or abl., 259. & (cf. 
260, a); w.acc., penalty, 220, 4; vbs. 
comp., w. dat., 228 , in w. acc., w. adjs., 
234. ¢; in citations, 258. ¢, 2. N. 2; 
place where, 258. ¢. 1; in idioms of 
time, 259. 4, w. abl. of gerund, 3o1. 

in-, stem-ending, 48. 4; in-, 63. a. 

in, primary suffix. See an, 

Inceptive or Inchoative verbs, 167. a. 

Inclination, adjs. of constr., 234. @, ¢. 

inclutus, comp. gi. d@. 

‘ Incomplete action, tenses of. 
tinued action, 

Increment, defined, 349. a; of nouns 
and adjs., 350; of verbs, 351. 

Indeclinable nouns, gender of, 29. c; list 
of, 77. I. . 

Indefinite antecedent, relative with, with 
subjunc,, 320. a and N, 

Indefinite pronouns, decl., to4, 105. Syn- 
tax, 202, 203, indef. relative may intro- 
duce conditional clause, 304. a. N., 316, 

Indefinite subject omitted, 206, 4; use of 
2d person for, 266. 2; in general con- 
ditions, 309 @ licet clarum fieri, 
272. a, N 

indefinite value, 252. a, 3. 

{ndicative mood, 108, 4; how used, 112. 
a, 264; in apod. of conditions con- 
trary to fact, 308, 4, ¢, 311. ¢; in causal 
clauses, 321; in clause with quod, 333. 

Indiged, with gen., 223, 243. £ 

indignus, with abl., 245. 2; w. quiand 
subjunc., 320 7 

Indirect Cases, 31. N. 

INDIRECT DISCOURSE, origin, etc., note, 
p. 369, list of verbs that take ind. disc., 
P- 370, foot-n.; direct and indir. quota- 
tion, 325. Moods in ind. disc., 336 ; verb 
of saying implied, id, N. 2. Subj. acc., 
id. a, Subord. clause when explana- 
tory, id. 6; clauses w. rel. which is 
equiv. to demonstr., id. ¢. Tenses of 


See Conr- 





and Subjects. 465 
infin. in ind. disc., 336. Aj; tenses of 
subjunc., 336. B; subjunc, depending 
on perf, inf, id. N.; pres. and perf, 
after secondary tense (epraesenta- 
zi), id. a,. Conditional sentences in 
ind. disc., 337; Questions in ind. disc., 
338; Deliberative subjunc, in, id. 2; 
Commands in ind, disc., 339; prohibi- 
tion, id. N. Informal ind. disc., 340, 
341. 

Indirect Questions, defined, p. 201; syn- 
tax, 210. £ R., 334; fut. tense in, id. a; 
deliberative subj. in, id. 4; indic, in 
(early Lat.), id. d. (See Note, p. 367.) 

Indirect quotation, 335. 

Indirect object, 177, 224, and N, 225, 226, 
227. N. 

Indirect reflexive, 196, a, id. 2, z. 

Indo-European forms, 120. N., pp. 434, 
435+ 

indiic6, w. names of authors, 292, ¢. N. 

induo, double constr. of, 225. d. 

ined, constr., 228. a. 

ineptus, constr., 299. foot-n. 

inermis or -us, 87.7, 

infera, defect., 82. d, cf. p. 56. foot-n; 
comp., 91. 4. 

inferi, use, 91. 4, 

inferior, comparison, 91. a. 

Infinitive used as noun, gender, 20. ¢; 
with gen., 214. d. (See, also, Infinitive 
Mood, Sy#tax.) 

INFINITIVE Moop, £tymology, 108. 3d, 
and foot-n.; tenses of, 110. d; how 
used, 112. @; how formed, p. 120; 
pass. in -ier, 128. e. 4; fut. inf. of 
deponents, 135 ¢, /; subject in acc., 
173. 2, 240. f- 

INFINITIVE MoopD, Syvtax, 270-275; 
used as subject, 270; complementary 
inf., 271; verbs having subj. or infin., 
id. a, cf. 331; inf, for subjunc. clause, 
331.2; with subject acc., 272; case of 
predicate noun, id. 4; inf. of purpose, 
273; w. adjs., in poetry, id. d; of re- 
sult, id. 2; aS. pure noun, id, 2; in 
exclamations, 274 (sequence, 285. N. I). 
Historical inf., 275. Tenses of inf, 
288; perf, instead of pres., id. d, e; 
fore ut, etc., for fut. inf.,id.f Inf. in 
Indir. disc., 336; tenses, 336.A. {Note 
on infin., p. 283.) 

Infinitive Clauses, as subj. or obj., 330; 


406 


w. pass. verbs, id. a-d. See also Indi- 
rect Discourse. Cf, also, 272. 

infitias, defect., 77. 2; use, 258. 4. R. 

Inflection, defined, 20; terminations of, 
id. 6; how modified, 24; of decl. and 
conjugation, 26. 

Influence, vbs. of, w. Ut-clause, 331. a. 

Informal Indirect Discourse, 340, 341. 

Infra, use, 152. a, 153. 

ingéns, decl., 87. a; comp., gI. d. 

Inherited differences of form, 8. 1; in 
vowels, 9. a-d; transposition of vowel 
and liquid, id. d. 

initirid, as abl. of manner, 248. R. 

initisst, defect., 71. 4. 

inops, decl., 87. a, d. 

inquam, inquit, 144. 4; position of, 
345. ¢; in direct quotation, 336. N. I. 

Inseparable particles, 170. 3. 

Insertion of consonants (p in simpsi), 
II. ¢; p. 429, N. 

insidiae, dat. with, 227. d. 

Insperg6, constr., 225. d. 

instar, indecl., 77. 1; w. gen., 223. ¢. 

Inst6, constr., 331. 

insulam, ad, 258. 4. N. 3. 

Instrument, abl. of, 248. ¢. 

Instrumental case, 31 Zz (cf. pp. 205, 
245); as adv., p. 123. N. 8; source of 
several abl. constructions, 248, head-n. 

integer, decl., 82. ¢. 

Integral part, subjunc. of, 340, 342. 

integrum est ut, 332. 

Intensive pronoun, Ioo. ¢, 102. ¢. and N., 
195. 2. 

Intensive verbs, 167. 4 (cf. c). 

inter, use 152. 2, 153; in comp., 170. a; 
vbs. comp. with, 228; position, 263. N: 
inter s6, 99. d, 196. 7; inter sicari6s, 
220. ¢; inter, w. gerund, 300. 

inter s6 (reciprocal), 99. d, 196. 7. 

interclid6, constr., 225. d and N. 2. 

interdic6, constr., 225. @, N. I. 

interest, constr., 222; with ad, id. 4, 

interior, comp., 91. a. 

‘Interjections, def , 25; list, p. 139; w. 
dat., 235.¢. 

Interlocked order of words, 344. 2. 

Intermediate Clauses, Syntax of, 340-342. 

Interrogative advs., use, 210. ¢; position, 
344- 4. 

Interrogative particles, list of, 149. @; 
use, 210. 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


- 


Interrogative pronouns, I04, 105; use, 
210, €; position, 344. 4 

Interrogative sentences, 171. 4; forms of, 
210-212. 

intra (interior), 91; derivation, 148. 
N. B, ; 

Intransitive verbs, 175. @, 177; used im- 
personally in pass., 146. d; dat. with, 
226 ff.; used transitively, w. acc, and 
dat., 227. £ (cf. 237. ¢. N. 3). 

-Inus, adj. ending, 164. ¢. 

intitilis, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. 
foot-n. 

invictus, comp., 91. d@. 

invidia, w. dat., 227. d. 

invitus, comp., gr. d. 

-i6, noun-ending, 163. 4; gend., 65. 4, 
67. 3. 

-i6, verbs in, conj. III., 123. 4, 2; forms 
of, 126. ¢, ¢; paradigm, p. 100; -conj. 
IV., 126. d; derivation, 166, d. 

Ionic measure, 356. ¢; verse, 372. 16. 

ip-, stem-ending, 45. a. 

ipse, formation, 100. ¢; decl., tor; use, 
102. d and N., 195. 2; used instead of 
reflexive, 196. @, 2. N. z. 

iri, in fut. infin. pass., 141, 147. ¢. 

Ironical statement not diff. in form from 
question, 210, 4. N. 

Irrational measures, 356, N., 369. N. 

is, decl., 101; use, 102. d, 7, 106; use 
emphatically, 195. ¢; used instead of 
reflexive, 196. a, 2. N., 2 

-Is, nom. ending, gend., 65. 4; list of © 
words, 67. a; -is, -eris, 67. 3; -is, 
-idis, id. d; -is, patronymic, 164. 4, 

-is-, -iss-, -sis-, dropped in perf., 128. 2. 

-is, nom. and acc, pl., decl. III., 58 (cf. 
Pp. 30, foot-n. 2); of adjs., 84. 4, 87. ¢; 
Greek nom. ending, 63. ¢. 

-is, see it-. 

Islands, names of, loc, use, 258. ¢, 2 and 
R. 3 to which, 258. 4, from which, a. 
-isse,-issem, verb-ending,seeN.,p. 119 ff. 

-iss6, verbs ending in, 167. ¢ 

iste, shortened to ste, 100, 4; decl., ror. 
N.¢.3 use, 102. ¢ 

istic, decl., ror. 

IT as sign of Impersonals, 145, foot-n. 

it- as stem-ending, 45. 4; decl., 59, 87. 4, 

ita, correl. with ut, 107; in answers, 212, 
a; ita ut, 319. R. 

Italian dialects, Appendix, p. 434. 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


itaque, accent, 19. »; compared with 
ergo, 156. ¢; used with ergs, 208. ¢; 
position of, 345. 3. 

iter, stem of, 60. ¢, cf. 349. 2. 

Iterative verbs (-t6, -it6, -s6), 167. 4. 

-it6, verbs in, 167. 4. 

-Itus, adj.-ending, 164. 7 

-ium, noun-ending, 163. f 164. 4. 11. 

-ium, gen. plur., decl. III., 55. a; of 
adjs., 84. , 85, 87. ¢. 

-Ius, gen, sing. ending, 83; quantity, id. 
foot-n., 347. @, I. 

-ius, adjs. in, gen., voc., 81. a.; formation 
of adjs. in, 164. 2, m. 

-iv-, in perf., 132. a. 

-ivus, verbal adj.-ending, 164. 4. 

-Ix (-ix), nouns in, 67. e. 


J (the character), 4. N. 1; Eng. sound, 
id. N. 2. 

iam, derivation, 148. N. 7; use, 151. 3; 
w. imperf., 277. ¢. N. ° 

iamditi, w. pres., 276. a; w. imperf., 
277. b. 

iamdiidum, w. pres., 276. a; w. im- 
perf., 277. 5; w. imperative, 276. a. 
N. 2. 

iecur, decl., forms from different sterns, 
60, ¢, 78. 1. f- 

iocus, pl. in -I or -a, 78. 2. 3. 

fubar, decl., 57. a. 

fubed, w. acc., 227. a; w. inf., 271. 4, 
330. 2. 4, 2. 331. a. 

fucundus, constr., 303. R. 

figerum, defect, 77. 4; decl., 78. 1. 4; 
measure, 381, 

Julian Calendar, 376, head-n.; 376. ¢. 

fung6, w. abl. or dat., 227. ¢. N., 248. 
a R. 

Iippiter, stem and decl., 60. 4; plural, 
75. a. 

itis, decl., 67. 4, 77. 6. a. 

ifisst, defect., 71. 4, 77. 2 

ilistd, w. compar., 247. d. 

fuvat, w. acc., 237. 4. 

fuvenis, masc. adj., 88. 4; how com- 
pared, 91. ¢; decl., 59. 

fuv6, with acc., 227. a, 

{ixt&, position, 263. N. 


K, supplanted by CO, 6. N. 
ka, primary suffix, 160. A, 
Kalendae, 376. a. 





467 


Kindred forms, Latin and English, rs, cf. 
Appendix. 

Kindred signification, acc. of, 238. 

Knowing, verbs of, w. acc. and inf., 271, 


272, 330. I. 
Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 218. a. 


L; nouns in -l, gend., 65. ¢, 67. 5; adj.- 
stems in 1-, 85. 

la, see ra, 

Labials, 3; stems, decl. III., 45. a; gend., 
66. ¢; forms of inflections, 67. ¢c. 

labGrG, w. abl. 245. a. 2. 

lac, decl., 67. a. 

lacus, decl., 68; dat. and abl. pl. in 
-ubus, 7o. d. 

laedo, constr., w. acc., 227. a. 

laetor, laetus, w, abl., 254. 3. 

lampas, decl., 63. f 64. 

lated, w. acc., 239. d; w. dat., id. N. 2. 

latet, w. acc., 237. ¢. 

latifundium, 168, 4. 

Latin language, origin and comparative 
forms of; earlier forms; languages de- 
rived from; see Appendix. 

latus, part., derivation, 139, foot-n. 

Learning, verbs of, w. inf., 271. 

Length, expressed by gen., 215. 4, 

-léns, -lentus, see -oléns, -olentus. 

1e6, decl., 49. 

Leonidas, decl., 37. 

Letters, classification of, 1-5. 

levis, decl., 84; comp., 89. 

leviter. comp., 92. 

liber, adj., deci., 41. ¢, 82. 6. 

Liber, decl., 41. ¢. 

liberi, noun, 41. ¢, 76. 2. 

libet, impers., 146. d; w. dat., 227. ¢, 

licet, impers., synopsis, 145; use, 146. ¢; 
w. dat., 227. ¢; w. predicate dat., 272, 
a; w. subjunctive, meaning although, 
313. 4; licet eam, licet mé ire, 
licet mihi ire, 331. 7 and N. 3. 

Likeness, adjs. of, w. dat. 234. @; w. 
gen., id. d. 

Limiting word, meaning of, 178. 3. 

Linguals, 3; stems in, decl. IIL, 45. 4; 
gend. of, 66. d; forms of inflection, 
67. a. 

linter, decl., 51. 4,54. 1; gend., 67. a. 

Liquids, 3. 2; stems of, decl. III., 48-50; 
gend. of, 66. 4; forms of inflections, 
67. 3. 


468 


elis, adjs. in, comp., 89. 4. 
Litotes, 209. é. 
elium, noun-ending, 163. 7 
i-, as stem-ending, 48. e. 
Locative abl., 254, 258. ¢. 3; idiomatic 
use, id. @; adverbial forms, 148. N, 6, 
LocaTIVE case, 31.4, p. 218; akin to dat., 
id.; in abl., p. 245, p. 260; of decl. L., 
36. ¢; decl. II., go; decl III. 62; 
decl. IV. (domf), 70. f foot-n.; decl. 
V.,74. ¢; as adverb, 148, N. 8; forms, 
258.¢.2,d@. With abl. in apposition, 184, 
¢; relative adverb used to refer to, 201. 
fF; anim, 218. ¢. R., 223. ¢. Locative 
compared with dat., 224. N.; locative 
used to express where, 258. ¢;, doml, 
etc., id. d. 

10c6, abl. without prep., 258. f 1. 

loc6, verb., constr., 260. a. 

locum capere, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 
299. a. 

locus, pl. -i or -a, 78. 2. 4. 

Logacedic Verse, 369-371. Note on, 
369. 

Long and Short, see Quantity, 

longius, without quam, 247. ¢. 

lidicer, decl., 82. c. 

lués, defect., 77. 4. 

1lix, decl., 77. 6. 

lynx, decl., 63. 7 


M, final, elision of, 359. 4. R., d@; inserted 
in verb-root, 123. ¢. 3. 

-m, sign of acc., origin, p. 205; omitted 
in inscriptions, 38. N. 

-M (verb-ending), lost, 116, N. 

ma, primary suffix, 160, ». 

macer, decl., 82. ¢. 

‘macte virtiite, use and constr., 241. d 

and N. 

magis, as sign of comparative, 89. d; 
comps. of, w. quam, 262. N, 

mé¢eni, gen. of value, 252. a. 

magnus, comparison, 90, 

Main clause, defined, 180. 4, 

maiestatis, with words of accusing, 
etc., 220. a. 

maior natt, or. c. 

maioré6s, signification of, 76. 2, 76. 4, 
93. f- 

Making, verbs of, constr., 239. a. 

male, comp., 92; compounds of, with 
dat., 227. é. 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


m&l5, conj., 138. 

malus, comparison, 90, 

man, primary suffix, 160. » 

mando, constr., 331. 

mane, defect. noun, 57. ¢, 77. 2 

mane6, with abl., 254. 4. 

m&nsuétus, 159. ¢. 

manus, decl., 68; gender, 69. 

Manner, adv. of, 148. Abl. of, hard ta 
distinguish from specification, 253. N. 
Manner implied in part., 292. 

Manner, abl, of, 248. and R,. 

mare, decl., 57. @, 59. 

mari, loc., 258. 2. 

mas, decl., 54. 2. 

Masculines, rule for gender, 29. 

Masculine adjectives, 88. 4. 

Masculine czesura, 362, R. 

Material, adjectives denoting, 164. 2; 
gen. of, 214. ¢, /; abl. of, 244. and ee, 

maximé, as sign of superl., 89. da. , 

May, how expressed in Latin, 312. 4. N. 

Means, nouns denoting, 163. ¢; abl. of, 
248. and ¢; participle implying means, 
292. 

Measure, gen. of, 215. 4 (cf. 257. a). 
Measures in Prosody, 355-357; names 
of, 356; contracted or resolved, 357. 
Measures of value, 377-380; of length, 
381; of weight, 382; of capacity, 383. 
medeor, medicor, with dat. or acc., | 

227. 0. 

mediocris, decl., 84. a. N. 

Meditative verbs, 167. ¢ 

medius (middle part of), 193. 

médius fidius, 240. d. N. 2. 

mel, decl., 67. d. 

melior, decl., 86. 

melius est, with infin., 288. e, 

memini, conj., 143. ¢; in pres. sense, 143. 
N., 279. ¢; imperative of, 269. ¢; mes 
mini with pres. infin., 336. A, N. 1. 

memor, decl., 87. a. 

Memory, adjs. of, constr., 218. a; verbs 
of, constr., 219. 

men, primary suffix, 160. ». 

-men, -mentum, noun-endings, 163. c; 
-men, gend., 65. ¢, 67. 4. 

mé6nsis, decl., 59. 

meridiés, gend., 73. 

-met (enclitic), 99. Z 

Metathesis, 11. d, 124. a. N. 

Metre, see Prosody. 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


metud, with dat. or acc., 227. ¢; w. sub- 
junc., 331. f. 

metus, with dat. or acc., 227. ¢. 

meus (voc, mI, 81. a. N.), 40. ¢, 81. a, 
99. a; syntax of, 197. a, 214. a. 

Middle voice, 111. a. and N., 118. N., 
240. ¢. N., 249. N. 

Mile, English feet in, 381. 

miles, decl., 46. 

Military expressions, dat. in, 233. 4; abl. 
dat. in, 233. 8; abl. of accomp. without 
cum, 248. a. N. 

militiae (locative), 258. d. 

mille (milia), decl, and constr., 94. ¢. 

-mini, as personal ending, p. 78, foot-n. 

minim6, compar., 92; use, 93. ¢; W. 
neg. force, 209. ¢; in answer (“no” 
212. a. 

ministr6, w. infin., 273. a. 

minor nati, ot. ¢. 

minGris, gen. of value, 252. a, d. 

min6rés, signification, 93. 

minus, compar., 92; use, 93. ¢; with si 
and quo, = 20, 209. €; constr. without 
quam, 247. ¢. 

-minus, -mnus, verbal adjective-end- 
ings, 164, 2 

miror si, 333. 5. R. 

mirum quam (quantum), with in- 
dicative, 334. ¢. 

misce6 with abl. or dat., 227. ¢. N., 248. 


a. R. 

mis, tis, 98. 1. ¢. 

miser, decl., 82; comp. 89. a. 

miseré, comp., 92. 

misereor, with gen., 227. a, 

miserésco, with gen., 221. a. 

miseret, 146, 4; with gen. and acc., 
221. 6; other constr., ¢, d. 

miseror, with acc., 221. a. 

misy, decl., 67. a. 

-mnus, see -minus, 

Modern languages compared with Latin, 
see Appendix. 

Modesty, subjunc. of, 311. 3, 

Modification of subj. or pred., 178. 

Modifiers, position of, 343, 344; of nega- 
tive, 345. d. 

modo... modo, 208. d@. 

modo (modo n8) with subjunctive of 
proviso, 314. 

mod as abl, of manner, 248, R, 

molaris, decl., 57 a 





469 


mone6, conj., p. 96; constr., 219. ¢, 238. 
6. N. 

-mGnia, -m6nium, noun-endings, 163. ¢ 

Monoptotes, 77. 2. 

Monosyllables, quantity, 348. 1-3. 

Months, gender of names of, 29. 1 and a; 
decl, of names of in -ber, 84. a; names 
of, 376, head-n; divisions of, in Roman 
Calendar, 376. 

Moods, names and uses of, 108 4, 112; 
note on origin and nature of, p. 274; 
Syntax of, 264-275. 

Moods in temporal clauses, how distin- 
guished, 323. 

Mora, in Prosody, 355. a. 

mG6rigerus, decl., 82. a, 


,| mos est ut, 332. 


Mother, name of, w. prep., 244. a. R. 
Motion, how expressed, 225. 4, 229. a, 
_ 243. 8; indicated by compounds, 237, 

@; implied, 259. 2. 

Motion, end of, see End of Motion. 

Motive, how expressed, 245. 4. 

Mountains, names of, gender, 29. 1 
and a, 

-ms (-mps), noun in, 67. ¢. 

Mulciber, decl., 41. ¢. 

muliebris, decl., 84. a. N. 

multa nocte, 193. N. 

Multiplication by distributives, 95. ¢. 

Multiplicatives, 97. 

multum (-d), comp., 92. 

multus, comparison, go. 

minus, decl., 78. 1./; minus est ut, 
332+ 

mis, decl., 54, cf. 54. 2. 

misica {-6), decl., 37. 

Musical accent, 358. 

miutare, constr., 252. ¢. 

Mutes, 2. 2,3; mute-stems, decl. IIL, 
44-47; apparent, 47. a, 54. 

mythos, decl., 43. 


N, 2.4; n adulterinum, id. 

N as final letter of stem (leGn-), 48. a, 

n, preceding stem-vowel of verb, 123. 6.1; 
inserted in verb-root (frang6), 123. c 
3; 124.5. N. 

na, primary suffix, 160. 8 

nais, decl., 64. 

nam (enclitic), in questions, 210. £ 

nam, namque, use, 156. d, 208. ¢ 

Names of men and women, 8o. 


470 


Naming, vbs. of, w. two accs., 239. @. 

Nasals, 2. 4, 3; inserted in verb-root, 123. 
c. 3. 

n&t&lis, decl., 57. 3. ; 

nati (maior, minor), of. ¢.. 

n&tus, etc., w. abl. of source, 244. a. 

navis, decl., 57. 4. 

-nd, -nt, vowel short before, 18. 7 

-ndus, verbal adj.-ending, 164. 0; ger- 
undive in, 113. d. 

ne (enclitic), use in questions, 210. a—d; 
in double questions, 211; w. force of 
n6nne, 210.72 ;orig.meaning, id. N.; in 
exclamatory questions, 332. ¢; quan- 
tity, 348. 1. 

né, neg. of hortatory subj., 266. R.; w. 
subjunctive of proviso, 312. @; in 
prohibitions, 269. @; in concessions, 
313. a2; in final clauses, 317; =né- 
dum, 317. ¢. R., in substantive clauses, 
with verbs of hindering, 331. ¢. 2; of 
fearing, id. 7; omitted after cave, 
id, N. 7 

né n6n, w. vbs. of fearing, 331. 7 

Nearness, adjs. of, with dat., 234, a; w. 
gen., id. @. 

nec enim, 156. d. 

necesse, indecl., 171; 
ut, 332. a. 

Necessity, verbs of, with perf. pass. inf., 
288.d@; in apodosis, 308. ¢, 311. ¢; with 
ut-clause, 331. ¢. 

necne in double questions, 211. 

nédum, 317. ¢. R. and N. 

nefas, indecl., 77. 1; with latter supine, 
303. 

Negation, perfect preferred in, 279. a. 

Negative answer, 210. ¢; 212, and a. 

Negative particles, list of, 149. ¢; two 
negatives, 150, 209. @; use of, 209; 
form different from English, 209. 4; 
neg. answers, 212; neg. proviso, 314. a; 
neg. condition, 315. @; purpose, 317; 
result, 319. a, d, R., position of, 345. d. 

neg6, better than dic6 ... nGn, 209. 
4, 336 (4th quotation). 

negotium d6 ut, 331. 

ném6, use of, 202. f; n6m6 nGn, 150. 4, 

neque (nec), avd not, 156. a; neque 
enim, use, 156. d; neque after a 
neg., 209. a. 

néquam, in decl., 87. 4; comparison of, 
90. 


necesse est 





Index of Words und Subjects. 


nequed, conj., 144. % 

né ,.. quidem, use, 151. ¢; after n6n, 
209. 2: position of, 345. 4; after n6n 
modo, 149. ¢. 

néquis, decl., 105. a. 

nesci6 an, 2to. f R. 

nescid quis, use, 202. a; as indefinite 
without subj., 334. ¢. 

-neus, adj.-ending, 164. 2. 

Neuter acc. as adv., 148. d, cf. 3. N. 

Neuter adjs., special uses of, 189. 

Neuter verbs, see Intransitive Verbs, 

Neuter gender, general rule for, 29. ¢; 
cases alike in, 33. 6; endings of decl. 
ITL., 65. ¢. 

Neuter pron, as cognate acc., 238. 3.’ 

Neuter passives, 136. 

Neuter verbs, 175, 176; with cognate acc., 
238, having passive sense, with ab, 
246. a. 

Neuter passives, 136. 

nex, decl., 77. 6. 

ni, primary suffix, 160. «. 

ni, nisi, 304, N.; use of, 315. a, 

-nia -nium, noun-endings, 163. £ 

niger, decl., 82; distinct from ater, gr. 
d. N. 

nihil, indecl., 77. 1; contr. to nil, 347. ¢. 

nihili, gen. of value, 252. d. 

nimirum quam, used as indefinite 
without subjunc., 334. ¢. 

ningit, 146. a. 

nisi and si nG6n, 315. a; nisi si, id.; 
nisi vér6 (forte),id.4; nisi in sense 
of only, id. a. 

nisi v6r6, nisi forte, 315. 4. 

nitor, with abl., 254. 4. 

nix (stem and decl.), p. 26, foot-n; plur., 
75. 4. 

Noa, in answers, how expressed, 212. 

n6li, in prohibitions, 269..2, 

n616, conj., 138; part., as dat. of refer- 
ence, 235. ¢. 

n6men, decl., 49; #dmen, denoting gens, 
80, @. 


n6émen est, with pred, dat., 231. 3, ¢ 


nomina abundantia, 78. I. 

Nominal adjectives, 164. a—&. 

NOMINATIVE defined, 31. a, how formed - 
trom stem, 32, 6; nom. suffix, p. 205; 
neui. pi. nom. and acc, alike, 33. 4; in 
decl. II., N., p. 16; im decl. III. 44, 
45, 48, 51; of neuters, i-stems, 51. ¢; 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


in a-stems, decl. IV., p. 40, N.3 in 
e-stems, decl. V., p. 32, N. 

NOMINATIVE, Syztax (see p. 205): as 
subject, 173. I; in predicate, 176. 4, 
185; verb-agreement with, 204; used 
for vocative, 241. a; in exclamations, 
id. ¢ (cf. 240. d); with opus in 
predicate, 243. ¢. R.; nom. of gerund 
supplied by inf., 295. R. 

ndn, derivation, 148. N. 2; compounds 
of, 150. @, 6; in answers, 212, a. 

n6n dubitG quin, 319. d; 332.2. R. 

ndn modo, after a negative, 209. a. 

n6n modo,..né...quidem, 149. ¢. 

n6nne, in questions, 210. ¢. 

n6n n6mo6, non niillus, etc., r50. a. 

non quia, n6n quod, non quo, non 
quin, etc., 156. 4 321. R. 

non satis, 93. ¢. 

Nones (nGnae), 376. ¢. 

nos, decl., 98. 1; for ego, 98. 1. 4. 

noster, for poss. gen., 99. a, 197. a. 

nostri, as objective gen., 99. ¢, 194. 4. 

nostriim, as partitive gen., 99. 4, 194. 4. 

novendecim, 94. ¢. 

Noun and adj., forms of verb, 109, p. 120. 

Noun-stem, treated as root, 123. d@. 

Novns defined, 25. a; in decl., gend., 
29. ¢; declension of, 32-78; derivative 
forms of, 161-163; used as adjectives, 
88. ¢, 188. d; rule of agreement, 183; 
w. part. gen., 216; w. obj. gen., 217; 
governing acc., 237. /; noun as prot- 
asis, 310. a. 

Nouns of agency, 161; formation, 162. 

10, decl., 54. 

-ns, as noun-ending, 67. d; as adjective- 
ending, 85. a; participles in, decl., 85, 
87. d; w. gen., 218.4; w. acc., id. N. 
I and 2. 

-nt, stems in, decl., 87. 3. 

niibés, decl., 52. 

ntibG, with dat., 227. ¢. 

niillus, decl., 83. 

num, force of, 210. ¢; in indirect ques- 
tions, id, 7 R. 

Number, 31; nouns, defect. in, 75, 77. 5, 
6,76; variable in, 79. a; peculiar uses, 
id. 4,¢; number in verbs, 108. d; agree- 
ment in, 181; with appositives, 184. a; 
with adjs., 186, 187, 2; with verbs, 204, 
205. ¢. 

Numeral advs., 96, 





471 


Numerals, 94-97; cardinals and ordinals, 
94; distributives, 95; advs., 96; others, 
97. Position of numeral adjs., 344. 4. 

numquis, decl., 105. @; meaning and 
form, id, 2. 

nunc, compared with iam, 151. 4. 

nunc ,.. nunc, 208. d. 

nurus, gend., 69. a. 

-nus, adj. ending, 164. d. 


O or a, Indo-European vowel, p. 142, 
foot-n, p. 433, foot-n. 

o for u after uor V,7; in decl. II., 38. N. 

-O final in am6=4&+m, 116. N. 

-6 in nom., 48. a; gend., 65. a, 67. 4; in 
fem. abl. of Gr, adjs., 82. d. N. 

-6, -Gnis, noun-ending, 162. ¢, 164. 7. 

o-stems, decl. II., 38, p. 22, foot-n.; in 
adjs., 82, 83; verbs from O-stems, 166. 
a. 2. 

O si, w. subjunc. of wish, 267. 2. and N. 1. 

ob, use, 152. 2, 153; in comp., 170. a; in 
comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 228; to express 
cause, 245. 6; w. gerund, 300. 

obed, constr., 228. a. 

Obeying, vbs. of, 227; w. acc., id. a, 

Object cases, 177. 4. 

Object clauses, infin., 330; subj., 331, 332. 

Object defined, 177; becomes subject of 
pass., id. a, 237. @; acc. of direct w. 
dat. of indir. obj., 225; secondary obj., 
239. 2; obj. of anticipation, 334. c. 

Objective case expressed in Latin by 
gen., dat., acc., or abl., 177. 3. 

Objective compounds, 168. ¢. 

Objective genitive, mei, etc.,99.c; defined, 
213.2; with nouns, 217; with adjs., 218, 

Obligation, unfulfilled, hort. subj., 266. ¢. 

Oblique cases, 31. g; origin of names of, 


Pp. 205. 

obvius (obviam), derivation, 148. N. 
6; as apparent adj., 188. ¢.1; with dat. 
228. d. 

Scior, comp., 91. @. 

Occasion, expressed by participle, 292. 

octddecim, 94. ¢ 

Sdi, conj., 143. a; w. meaning of pres 
ent, 279. é. 

0@, written e (long), 11. ¢; for -i in 
nom. pl., decl. II., 43. @ 

offend6, constr., 228. a. 

Old forms of pronouns; mis, tis, 98.1. ¢; 
méd, téd, id. J. 


472 


-o0léns, -olentus, adj. endings, 164. 2. 

ollus (ille), roo, a. 

-olus, diminutive ending, 164. a. 
Omission, of consonant, 11. 4; of pos- 
sessive, 197. ¢; of antecedent, 200. c. 
omnés; n6s omné6s (instead ofomnés 

nostrim), 216. e. 

-O6n, Greek ending, decl, II., 43. 

-On, -Gnis, nouns in, 67. 4. 

-On, gen. plur., decl; II., 43. ¢. 

-On, nom. ending, 63. ¢, d. 

On- stem-ending, 48. a, see 160. v. 

6n-, stem-ending, 63. 4 

ont-, nom. -G6n, 63. d. 

onyx, decl., 67. ¢. 

Open syllables, 14. d. 

opera, with gen., 246. 4. 

operam 46, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. 
@; with subjunc., 331. 

Operations of nature, 146. a. 

opiniGne, with compar., 247. 3. 

opinor, position of, 345. c. 

oportet, 146. c; with acc. of object, 
237. €; in apod., 308. c; imperfect re- 
fers to present, plupf. to past, 311. ¢. R.} 
w. subjunc, or inf., 331. 2. 

oportuit, w. pres., inf., 288. a. 

oppidum, ad, 258. 4. N. 3. 

oppiigns, w. acc., 228. a. 

ops, decl., 46; defect., 77. 5. 

Optative, derivation and comparison w. 
subjunc., p. 274. 

Optative subj. (wish), 267; w. utinam, 
etc., id. 6; velim, etc., w. subjunc., 
equiv. to, id. c. 

optimatés, 54. 3, 76. 2. a. 

opus, indecl., 77. 1; opus and Tisus, 
w. abl., 243. ¢; as pred. nom., id. R.; 
w. participle, 292. 6; w. supine in -0, 
303. 

or, suffix, see as. 

or-, stem-ending, decl. III., 48. a. 

-Or, noun-ending, 163. a. 

-or, -Oris, nouns in, 67. 2. 

or or -OS, nom. ending, 48. d; gend., 
65. a, 67. 

Oratid obligua, see Indirect Discourse. 

Order of words, 343-346. 

Ordinal Numbers, 94; decl., 94. 7 

-Orius, adj.-ending, 164. 2. 

Sr6G, constr., 331. 

Orpheus, decl., 43. 

-68, nom. ending, 48. @.; gend., 65. a. 67. 3. 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


-6s, -6dis, 67. d. 

os-, stem of comparatives, 86. a. 

-OS for -us, in nom. sing., decl. IL., 38, 
N.; as Greek ending, 43; as gen. 
ending in Greek nouns, decl. III., 
63. 7. 

Os, Gris, decl., 77. 6. d. 

OS, Ossis, stem, p. 26, foot-n. 2; decl., 61. 

Oscan forms compared with Latin, Ap- 
pendix, p. 435. 

ossu, ossua, (def.), 69. foot-n. 

-Osus, -olens, -olentus, adj.-endings, 
164. &. 

ovat (defective), 144. ¢. 

ovis, decl., 57. 4. 

-OxX, nouns in, 67. ¢. 

oxys, decl., 67. a. 


P, parasitic after m (stimpsi), 11. ¢. 
pacto, as abl. of manner, 248,R. 
Paeon, 356. d. 

paenitet, 146. 4; constr., 221. d—d. 

palam, as apparent adj., 188. ¢. 3; with 
abl., 207. 4, 261. d. 

Palatals, 3; stems, decl, III., 45. c; 
gender, 66, ¢; forms of inflection, 
O75: £i 

palister, decl., 84. a. 

Panthis, vocative of, 43. 4, 63. z. 

par, decl., 85. 4, 87. a; with gen., 218, d; 
w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. foot-n. 

Parallel verb-forms, 134. 

Parasitic sounds, II. ¢. 

Parataxis, p. 164, p. 274. 

paratus, with infin., 273. 4. 

Pardoning, verbs of, with dat., 227. 

paré6lion, decl., 43. 

Parisyllabic nouns of decl. III., 53. a; 
adjectives, 84. 

pariter, use, 234. a. N. 2. 

partem, adverbial use, 240, 4, 

parte, locative use, without preposition, 
258. f, 

particeps, decl., 87. 4, d. 

Participial clause implying condition, 
310. a. 

PARTICIPLES, defined, 25. ¢; comparison 
of, 89. ¢; number of, 109. a; how used, 
113; as adjs., id. ¢; as nouns, id. 7; 
used predicatively as adjs., id. g; parts. 
in -ns, used as adjs., with gen., 218. 3; 
clause equivalent to part., 201. 4; parts. 
in abl. absolute, 255. 





Index of Words and Subjects, 


PARTICIPLES, Syntax, 288-294; agree- 
ment, 186 and N.; meaning and form, 
289 ; tenses, 290; present in special use, 
id. a; pres. pass. part., how supplied, id. 
¢; perf. act., how supplied, id. d; parts. 
of deponent verbs, 135. a, 4, 290. 3, d; 
adjective use, 291; predicate use, 292; 
with opus, id. 4; perf. with habed, 
id. c; present with faci6, id. e; future 
part., 293; with past tenses of esse, id. 
¢; gerundive, use as part. or adj., 2904; 
future part. in indirect questions, 334. 
a; part. as protasis, 310. a. 

Particles defined, 27; forms and classi- 
fication, p. 122; note on formation, 
jie interrogative, 149. @; nega- 
tive, id. ¢, 209; in compounds, 170; 
Syntax, 207-212; use of interrogative 
particles, 210. a, d@; conditional parti- 


cles, 304. a, 315; particles of compari- 


son, 312. 
Particular conditions defined, 304. d. 
Partitive numerals, 97. ¢. 

Partitive genitive, 216; nostriim, etc., 
99. 4. 

Parts of Speech, 25. 

partus, decl., 70, a. 

parum, comp., 92; meaning, 93. ¢. 

parvi, gen. of value, 252. a. 

parvus, comp., go. 

Passive voice, 108. a; origin, 118. foot-n.; 
forms wanting in, 110, 4; signification, 
111; reflexive meaning, id. N., 118. N.; 
deponents, 111. 4; completed tenses, 
how formed, 126, ¢; passive used im- 
personally, 141. a, 146. @; 230, cf. 330. 
a-C, 331. 2. 

pater familias, decl., 36. 4. 

patiéns, comp. of, 89. e. 

patior, constr., 331. ¢. 

Patrials in -&s, decl., 54. 3, 87. 3. 

Patronymics (-ades, -ides, -6us, etc.), 
164. 3. 

pauper, decl., 87. 3. 

pax, decl., 77. 6. 

pect, gend., 69. 4; decl., 78. 1. ¢. 

peciiniae, gen., w. vbs. of accusing, 220. 
a. and N, 

pedester, decl., 84. a. 

pelagus (plur. pelagé), gend. of, 39. 4. 

pelvis, decl., 57. 4. 

Penalty, gen. of, 220 and N.; abl. of, id. 3. 

Penatés, decl., 54. 3 (cf. 76. 2). 





473 


penes, following noun, 263. N. 

Pentameter verse, 363. 

Penult, defined, 19; rules of quantity, 
349-354- 

penus, gend., 69. a; decl. 78. Lies 

per, prep., 152. a; use, 153; w. acc. of 
agent, 246. d. Adverbial prefix, w. adjs., 
170. ¢ (cf. 93 @); w. verbs, 170. ¢. N. 

Perceiving, verbs of, constr., 272, 330. 

perendi6 (loc.), 74. ¢, 148. N. 4 

Perfect participle, used to form tenses, 
110, 6; other uses, 113. ¢. 1; of depo- 
nents, 135. 4; used as nouns, retain 
adv., 207. ¢; dat. of agent with, 232. a; 
abl. w. opus and tisus, 343. ¢, 292. 4, 

PERFECT TENSE distinguished from im- 
perf., 115.4, ¢; perf. def. and perf, hist., 
id, ¢, 279; personal endings, 116, a; 
origin of i and’s in, 118. N.; stem, how 
formed, 124, 126; of conj, I., 126. a, 

» 23 contracted perf, 128. a, 4; perf. 
subj. in -sim, 128. ¢. 3; irreg. forms of 
conj. I., 130; of conj. II., 131; various, 
of conj. III., 132; of conj. IV., 133. 

PERFECT TENSE, Syvtax. Perf. Ind., use, 
279; in fut. conditions, 307. e¢;'in gen- 
eral conditions, 279. 4, 309. ¢; gnomic 
perf.,279.¢. Perf. Subj., hortatory, 266; 
in prohibitions, 266. 4, 269. a; optative, 
267. 2; in fut. conditions, 307. ¢; poten- 
tial, 311.@. Perf. Inf., in exclamations, 
274. N.; special uses, 288. d@, e; in indir. 
disc., 336. A. N. 1. Sequence of Tenses, 
perf. ind., 287. a; subjunc., id, 4, ¢; inf., 
336. B. N. 2, 

Periclés, decl., 63. 2. 

Period, 346, note on, p. 392. 

Periphrastic conjugations, 113. 4. N., a 
N.; paradigms, 129; periphrastic forms 
in conjugation, 147; use in contrary to 
fact apodosis, 308. @; in ind. questions, 
334. 2. 

Permission, vbs. of, constr., 331. ¢ 

permitto, w. dat., 227. ¢, 

permitto, w, abl., 252. c. 

pernox, decl., 87. f 

perpes, decl., 87. a, 

Persé6s, decl., 37. 

Person, 108. ae agreement, 181; of vbs., 
204 and a; with different persons,205,. 
a; order of the three persons, id. 

Personal constr. of passive with infini- 
tive, 330. a, 4, d. 


474 


Personal endings, 116, and foot-n., 117. 2. 

Personal pronouns, 98, 99, p. 178, head-n. ; 
Syntax, 194; omitted, 194. a, 206. a; gen. 
pl., id. 3; 3d pers., id. ¢. 

persuaded, constr., 331. 

Persuading, verbs of, with dat., 227. 

pertaesum est, 2271. J. 

pés, comps. of, decl., 87. d. 

Pet names, gend., 28. 4. N. 

peto with ab, 239. c. N. 1; w. subjunc., 
331. 

ph only in Greek words, 2. a, 3; sound 
of, 16. N. I. 

Phaizecian verse, 371. II. 

Pherecratic verse, 369, 370, 371. 4, 12. 

Phonetic variations, 8; phonetic decay, 
8. 2; vowels, 10; consonants, 11; pho- 
netic method of pronunciation, 16, 

Phorcys, decl., 63. a. 

Phrase, defined, 179. 

Phrases, neut., 29.¢; phrases and clauses 
grown into advs., 148. N. 6; adverbial 
phrases, 179; phrases limited by gen., 
214. d; phrase or clause in abl, abs., 
255. 4. 

Physical qualities, abl., 251. a. 

piger, decl., 82. ¢. 

piget, constr., 221. d-d. 

Pity, verbs of, constr., 221. a. 

pius, comp., 89. d. N., 91. d. 

pix, decl., 77. 6. 

Place, advs, of, 149. a; relations of, re- 
quire prep., 229. a, 258. a, c; place of 
birth, abl., 244. 4; place where, 254, 258. 
¢,@; place to or from which, 258; prep. 
when omitted, 258. foot-n., a, 6, f, <; 
locative case, 258. ¢. 2, @, é. 

Placing, vbs. of, constr., 260, @, 

Plants, gend. of names of, 29. 2 and 4; 
decl. of plant names in -us, 78. I. a. 

plaudG, w. dat., 227. ¢. 

Plautus, use of &trior, 89. N; of quom 
w. indic., 325. a. N., 326. N. 3; pro- 
sodial forms, 367. 2, 374. 4, 375. 

Pleasing, verbs of, constr., 227. 

plébés, decl., p. 41, foot-n. 1. 

Pienty, verbs of, constr., 223, 248. ¢. 

plénus, construction, 223, 248. ¢. R. 

-plex, numeral adjectives in, 97. 

pluit (impers.), 146. @; used personally, 
id. N. - 

Pluverfect Indicative, use of, 280; epis- 
tolary, 282; plup. indic. in conditions 


Index of Words 





and Subjects. 


cont. to fact, 308. c; in general condi- 
tions, 309. c. Pluperf. Subj., hortatory, 
266. ¢; optative, 267; in conditions, 308 
(sequence, 287. 7); potential, 311. a. N. 

Plural, wanting in decl. V., 74. d; used 
in sense different from sing., 75. a—c, 
79. ¢; pl. alone used, 76; plur. acc. 
used as advs., 148. ¢; neut. pl. of adjs., 
189. 4. 

Pliralia tantum, 76. 

pliris, gen. of value, 252. a, d. 

plus, decl., 86 and 4; comp., 90; with- 
out Quam, 247. ¢c. 

poenitet, see paenitet. 

poéma, decl., 47. 3. 

pondo, defect., 77. 2. 

p6n6G, w. abl., 260. a. 

por-, prefix, 170. 4. 

porticus, gend., 69. a. 

portus, decl., 70. d. 

Position, expressed by ab, eX, 260. J. 

Position in Prosody, 18, 347.2; does not 
affect final vowel, id. ¢. R. 

posse, as fut. inf., 288. f 

Possession, how expressed, 99. a; dat. 
of, 231; compared w. gen., id. R. 

Possessive compounds, 167. d. 

Possessive genitive, 214. a-d; dat. of 
reference used instead, 235. a. 

Possessive pronouns, 99. a, p. 64; w. gen, 
in appos., 184. d@; agreement, 197; in- 
stead of gen., id. a; special meanings, 
id. 4; omission, id. ¢; used substan- 
tively, 190. a, 197. @; used for gen., 
214. a; for obj. gen., 190. J, 217. a. 

Possibility, vbs. of, in apodosis, 308. ¢, 

possum, in apodosis, 308. ¢. 

post, vbs. comp. w., w. dat., 228. 

post, adverbial use of, 261. d; with 
quam, 262, 

postera, defect., 82. d; comp., 91. 4; 
posteri, 91. 4. 

posterior, 91. a, 3. 

Postpositive conjunctions, 156. 2. 

postquam (posteaquam), in tem- 
poral clauses, 324. 

postrémG, in enumerations, 15r. d. 

postridié, with gen., 223. ¢; with acc., 
207. 6, 261. a; with quam, 262. 

postuld ab, 239. ¢. N. 1; postuld ut, 


331. 
Potential mood, how expressed in Latin, 
112. N. 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


Potential subjunctive, 311. a. 

potis, pote, 87.44. © 

potior (adj.), comp., gt. d. 

potior (verb), conj., 135; with gen., 223. 
@, 249. a; w. abl., 249; w. acc., id. 4.; 
gerundive, 296. R. 

potius, comp., 92. : 

potui, w. pres. infin., 288. a. 

Power, adjs. of, w. gen., 218. d. 

Practice, vbs, of, 167. ¢. 

prae, 152. 4; use, 153; in comp., 93. d; 
in comp., w. dat., 228; in comp., w. 
quam, 262. N. 1; quantity of, in 
compounds, 347. 4. 

praecédo, constr., 228. a. 

praeceps, decl., 85. 4, 87. a. 

praecipi6, constr., 331. 

Praendmen, 80. a; abbreviations, id. d, e. 

praepes, decl., 87. d. 

praes, decl., 67. d, 77. 6. 

praest6lor, constr., 227. 2. 

praesum, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. a. 

praeter, use, 152. @, 153. 

praeterit, w. acc., 237. ¢. 

preci, defect., 77. 5. 

precor, constr., 331. 

Predicate, pp. 163, 164; defined, 172; 
modified, 178; pred. noun or adj., 
172. N., 176; case, 176. 6; pred. nom., 
etc., 185; pred. noun referring to two 
or more sing. nouns, id. 4; adjective, 
186. 4, c, @; agreement in, 187. a, 4; in 
rel, clause, 199; pred. adj. in neut. pl., 
187. ¢; pred. adj. in relative clause, 200, 
d; pred. acc., 239 and @; adj. as pred. 
acc., id. N.1; pred. acc, becomes pred, 
nom. in the pass., id. N. 2; predicate 
gen., 214. ¢, d@; predicate use of parti- 
ciples, 292. 

Predicate noun or adj. after inf., 270. N. 
2, 271. ¢, 272. a. 2and N,, 4, 

Prepositions, assimilation of, 11. 7; de- 
fined, 25. g; derivation of, p. 127, 
foot-n.; list of preps. w. acc., 152.2; w. 
abl., id. 4; with either, id. ¢; how dis- 
tinguished from advs., p. 127, foot-n.; 
idiomatic uses, 153; compounded w, 
vbs. and adjs., 170. a2, ¢; noun w. prep.., 
instead of obj. gen., 217. ¢; in compo- 
sition w. vbs., w. dat., 228, 229; acc. in 
compos., 239. 4; w. abl. of separation, 
243. 2; prep. omitted in relations of 
place, 258. a, 4, f, 2; use of, 260-263; 





475 


preps. following the noun, 263. N.; usual 
position of, 345.a. (See N., p. 205.) 

Present Participle, decl., 85; use, 113. a. 

Present stem, how formed, pp. 86, 119; 
from root, 123. 

Present tense, with iam dit, etc., 276. 
a; conative, id. 4; for fut., id. ¢c;- his« 
torical, id. d; with dum, id. ¢; in 
quotations, id. 7; sequence, 286, 287. 
é, 2; pres. inf. w. potui, etc., 288. a; 
participle, 290-292. Pres, inf. in ind. 
disc. referring to past time, 336. A. N. I. 

Present subjunc, in -im, 128. ¢. 2, 

Preteritive verbs, 143. N., 279. ¢. 

Preventing, verbs. of, constr., 225. ¢. N. 2. 

Price, abl, or gen., 252. 

pridié, form, 74. c; with gen., 223. e; 
with acc., 207. 4; constr. as prep. or 
adv., 261. @;,with quam, 262, 

Primary suffixes, defined, 159, 160. 

Primary tenses, 285. 1, 286, 

primipilaris, decl., 57. a. 

Primitive verbs, 165. 

prim6, primum, meanings, 151. d. 

primGris, defect., 87. f 

primus, form, p. 56, foot-n. 

princeps, decl., 87. 4. 

Principal parts of verb, 122. 4, a. 

prior, comparison, gI. 

prius, with quam, 262; priusquam 
in temporal clause, 327; in indir, disc., 
330. B. a. N. 2. 

Privation expressed by abl., 243. 

pro, 152. 4; use, 153; in comp., w. dat., 
228; to express for, 236. R. 

probo w. dat., 227. ¢; 232. ¢. N. 

Proceleusinatic, 356. ¢, 

procérus; decl., 82. a 

procul with abl., 261. 2. 

prohibe3d, constr. of, 225. d, 

Prohibitions, 266. 4, 269 and a, 6 N.; at 
ind. disc., 339. N. 

Promising, etc., verbs of, 330. 7 

Pronominal roots, 157, 159; as primary 
suffixes, id. 

PRONOUNS defined, 25. ¢; decl. of, 98- 
105; personal and reflexive, 98; gen., 
how used, 99. a=c; demonstrative, Ioo- 
to2; relative, interrog., and indef., 103- 
Io5; pron, contained in verb-ending, 
116. foot-n., 174. 2. 

PRONOUNS, Syntax, 194-203;. Personal, 
194; Demonstrative, 195; idem, id 


476 


¢, e¢; ipse, id. £7; Reflexive, 196; 
Possessive, 197; Relative, 186. N., 198; 
relative in protasis, 316; Indefinite, 
202. Prons. w. part. gen., 216. a; 
Position of prons., 344. 4, 345. ¢. Note 
on their use and meaning, p. 178. 

Pronunciation, Roman method, 16; Eng- 
lish method, 17. 

proniintis, constr., 331. 

prope, comp., 91. a; use, 152. a. 

prope est ut, 332. 

Proper names, 80: plur., 75, 76. I. 

Proper nouns, 25. 2. 

properus, decl., 82. a. 

propinquus, with gen., 218. d. 

propior (propius), comparison, gI. a; 
constr., 234. ¢, 261. a and N. 

Proportional numerals, 97. a. 

Propriety, vbs. of, in apodosis, 308. c, 
SII. ¢. 

proprius, with gen., 234. da. 

propter, use, 152. a2, 153; position, 263. 
N.; denoting motive, 245. 3. 

PROSODY, p. 394; rules and definitions, 
347-375; early peculiarities, 375. 

prosper (-us), decl., 82, 4, 

prospici6, w. dat. or acc., 227. ¢ 

Protasis (see Conditional Clauses), 304 
ff.; loose use of tenses in Eng., 305. R.; 
relative in prot., 316; temporal particles 
in, 322; ante-quam, priusquam in, 
327. 6; prot. in ind. disc., 337. 1. 

Protecting, vbs. of, constr., 225. d. N. 2. 

Protraction of long syllables, 355. ¢. 

provided, w. dat. or acc., 227. ¢, 

Proviso, subj. used in, 266. d@; introduced 
by modo, etc., 314; result-clause as, 
319. 4, 320. a. 

proximé, constr., 207, 4, 261. @, 234. ¢. 

proximus, constr., 234. ¢ 

-ps, nouns in, 67. ¢. 

-pse, -pte (enclitic), 99. f, 100. ¢; p. 67, 
foot-n. 

pabés, decl., 78. 1. ¢, 87. ¢. 

pudet, 146. 4; constr., 22. 

puer, decl., 38 (cf. 41. a). 

pulcher, decl., 82. ¢. 

puls, decl., 67. d. 

Punishment, abl. of, 220. 3. 

puppis, decl., 56. 4, 57. 4. 

Pure and impure syllables, 14. ¢. 

Purpose, infin. of, 273; expressed by ger- 
undive after certain vbs., 294. d@; by ger- 


bd, 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


und or gerundive as predicate gen., 298, 
R.; ways of expressing, 318. Clauses of, 
180. ¢; defined and classified, 317; use 
of quo in, id. 4; main clause omitted, 
id. c; nédum, id. R. and N. Sub- 
stantive clauses of, used after certain 
verbs, 331; of wishing, id. 4; of per- 
mitting, id.c; of determining, id.d; of 
caution, etc., id. ¢; of fearing, id. f- 
(Note on, p. 340.) 

Purpose or end, dat. of, 233. 

-ptis, compounds of, 67. a, 

puter, decl., 84. a. 


qué... qua 208. d. 

quadrupés, decl., 87. d. 

quae res (or id quod), 200. «. 

quaer6o, constr. (ex or d6), 239. ¢. N. 
2; w. subjunc., 331. 

quaes6, conj., 144.d; position of, 345. c. 


‘qualis, 105. 2. 


Qualities (abstract), gend., 29. 2. 

Qualities of an object compared, 192, 

Quality, adjs. of, 164. 2; gen. of, 215, 251. 
a; to denote price, 252. a, 4; abl. of, 
251 (cf. 215. N.). 

quam, with superlative, 93. 4; etymology 
of, p. 123. «} correlative w. tam, 107; 
w. compar. and positive or w. two pos- 
itives, 192. 6; with comparatives, 247. 
a, e; after alius, id. d; w. compar. of 
advs., id. e; with ante, post, 262, 
with subj. after comparatives, 320. c; 
followed by result-clause, 332. 4; in in- 
direct questions, 334. ¢; in indirect dis 
course, 336. a. R., ¢. N. 2 

quamdii, 328. N. 1, 

quamlibet, concessive, 266. ¢, 313. 

quam ob causam, 242. N. 

quam qui, quam ut, with subj., 320-<¢. 

quamquam, Ios. 4. N.; use, 156.2; with 
indic., 313. ¢; introducing a propos 
tion= and yet, id. f; w. subj., id. g. 

quam si, 312. 

quamvis, use, 156.2; subj. or ind. with; 
266. ¢, 313. @, g 

quand6 (interrog.), derivation, 148. N. 
n; meaning, 156. g; indef., id.; causal 
(séxce), 321. N. 3; temporal, 322. 

quanti, gen. of price, 252. a. 

Quantity, gen. of adjs. of, denoting price, 
252. 2. 

Quantity in Prosody, marks of, 5; ger- 


_ 


— 





TE a 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


eral rules of, 18, 347; nature of, p. 394. 
N.; final syllables, 348; penultimate syl- 
lables, 349-354. 

quanto, w. tantG, 106. c, 250. R. 

quantum (with mirum), in indirect 
questions, 334. ¢. 

quantumvis, concessive, 313. 

quantus, Ios. 2. 

quasi, with primary tenses, 312. R. 

quass6 (intensive), 167. 3. 

-que (enclitic), added to indefinites, 105. 
€; as conjunction, use, 156. a, 208. 4.3; 
quantity, 348. I. 

ques (defective), 144. 2. 

qués, old nom, plur., 104. d, 

Questions, direct, in indic., 112. a, 2I0~ 
212; indirect, id. f R; double ques- 
tions, 211 ; question and answer, 212; re- 
sult clause in exclam. questions, 332. ¢; 


mood in indirect question, 334; in in-. 


direct discourse, 338; in informal ind, 
disc., 341. a. 

qui (relative), decl., 103; (interrog. and 
indef.), 104 and a; in compounds, Ios; 
qui=ut is, with subj., 317, 319; qui 
causal and concessive, 320. ¢. 

qui (adverbial), 104. c. 

quicum, 104. ¢. 

quia, use, 156. /; causal, 321; w. verbs 
of feeling, 333. 4; in intermediate 
clauses, 341. d. 

quicumque, decl., 105. a. 

quid, in excl., 240. d. N, I. 

quidam, decl., 105. ¢; meaning of, 202, 
a; with ex, 216. ¢. 

quidem, use, 151. ¢; with is or idem, 
195. ¢; position of, 345. 4. 

quilibet, decl., 105. ¢; use, 202. ¢, 

quin, w. indic. equivalent to command, 
269. 7; in result-clause (= qui n6n), 
319. d; w. vbs. of hindering, 332. 2; 
n6n dubitd quin, 332. 2. R. 

Quinary or hemiolic measures, 356. @. 

quinquatris, gend., 69. a; pl. only, 
76. I. 

quippe, with relative clause, 320. ¢.N.1; 
with Cum, 326. N. 1. 

Quirités, 79. ¢. 

quis, decl., 104; distinguished from qui 
in use, id. a. and N.; compounds of 
{aliquis, etc.), 105; quis with si, 
num, n6, 105. @; indef. use of, 202, a. 

quis est qul, 320. a, 





477 


quis, dat. or abl. plur., 104. a. 

quisnam, Ios. z. 

quispiam, 105. ¢c, use of, 105. d. N, 

_ 202. a . 

quisquam, decl., 105. ¢; use, 105. ad. 
N., id. 2, 202. 4, ¢. : 

quisque, form and decl., 105. ¢; use 
with superlative, 93. c; in general as- 
sertions, 202. d;.in dependent clause, 
id. ¢; with plural verb, 205. ¢. 2, 

quisquis, decl., 105. 4. 

quivis, decl., 105. ¢; use, 202. c. 

quo, approaching abl. of cause, 250. N. 

quo in final clauses (= ut eS) with 
subj., 317. 6; nOn quo, 327. R. 

quod ...e6, 106. c; to denote deg. of 
difference, 250. R. 

quoad (purpose, etc.), 328. 

quod for id quod, 200, ¢, N. 

quod (conj.), 156. 7; mood with, 321; 
in sindirect discourse, id. a; subst. 
clause with, 333; as acc. of specifica- 
tion, id. a; with verbs of feeling, id. 4; 
quod in intermediate clauses, 341. ¢. 
and R. 

quod sciam (proviso), 320. d@. 

quod si, use, 156. 4, 240. 4. 

quom (see cum), 7, 156. 2 

quominus (= ut ed minus), w. vbs, — 
of hindering, 317. 4. N. I, 319. ¢, 331. é. 

quoniam, meaning, 156. 7; in causal 
clauses, 321. 

quoque, use, 151. a; position, 345. 4. 

quot, indeclinable, 106, a. ; 

Quotation, forms of, w. apud and in, 
258. ¢. 2. N. 2; direct and indir., 335. 

quotus quisque, Ios. ¢, 

quu- (cu-), 7. 

quum (conjunction), 7 (see cum), 


R subst. for s between senants, I1. a, p. 
26, foot-n, 2; r- in adj. stems, 85; rr- 
in noun-stems, 48. ¢. 

ra (la), primary suffix, 16c. «. 

rastrum, plu. in -a and 4, 78. 2, 4, 

ratiOne, as abl. of manner, 248, R. 

ratus, as pres. part., 290. 3. 

ravis, decl., 56. a. 

re- or red- (prefix), 170. 3. 

reBpse, roo. ¢. 

Receiving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d. 

Reciprocal (each other), how expressed, 
99. @, 196. f, 


478 


recordor, with acc., 219. 3. 

réctum est ut, 352. 

red-, see re-, 

Reduplication, 123. ¢, 124. ¢, p. 120, 158.¢; 
in perfect of conj. III., id.; list of verbs, 
132. 6; lost in fidi, eto., id. 132. £ N.; 
rule for quantity, 351. ¢. 

réfert, with gen. or possessive adj., 222; 
other constr., id. 4. 

Reference, object of, 218. 

Reference, pronouns of, 195.a; commonly 
omitted, id. 4; dative of, 235; gen. of 
specification, 218. c. 

Reflexive pronouns, 98. 2. a, 5, 102. ¢. N.; 
Syntax of, 196; of 1st and ‘2d person, 
id. 2. 

Reflexive verbs (deponent or passive), 
118. foot-n., 135. ¢; use of passive, 111. 
N. 1; with object acc., 240. N. 

Refusing, vbs. of, w. quOminus, 319. c. 

Regular verb, 121-136. 

Relationship, nouns of, 164. 4, . 

Relative adjectives, w. gen., 218, with a, 4, 

Relative adverbs, used correlatively, 107 ; 
used to connect independent sentences, 
180. f, 201. ¢; = pronoun with prep., 
207.a; referring to locative, 201. /; used 
instead of rel. pron., id. / 2, 207. a; used 
in relative clauses of purpose, 317; of 
result, 319; position, 201. ¢. 

Relative clauses, defined, 180. ¢; w. rela- 
tive advs., 201.4. Syzfax, 316-328; con- 
ditional, 316; final, 317, 318; consecu- 
tive, 319; characteristic, 320; causal, 
321; temporal, 323-328; rel. clauses in 
ind. disc., 340; position of rel. clause, 
345. ¢. (Note on origin and classifica- 
tion, p. 339.) 
zlative pronouns, decl., 103; forms how 
distinguished from interrogative and 
indef., 104. a; compounds of, 105; rela- 
tives as connectives, 180. 77 Syxtax, 198- 
201; rules of agreement, 198, 199; Ww. 
two antecedents, 198. a; rel. in agree- 
ment w. appos., etc., 199; use of the 
antecedent, 200; special uses of rel., 
201; never om. in Lat., 201. a; pers. of 
verb agreeing w., 204. a; abl. of rel. 

‘after comp., 247. a. N.; position, 345. ¢. 
Note on, p. 186. 

relinquitur ut, 332. a. 

reliquum est ut, 332. a. 

reliquus, use, 193; reliqui, use, 203. 2. 





Index of Words and Subjects, 


-rem, verb-ending, p. 120. 

Remembering, vbs. of, constr., 219; w. 
inf., 271. 

Reminding, vbs. of, constr., 219. ¢. 

Removing, vbs, of, w. abl., 243. a. 

[r6n], decl., 54. 2. 

repetundarum, 220. a. 

Repeated action as general condition, 
309. b. 

Repraesentatid, 276. d. N.; in ind. disc., 
336. B. a. 

Requesting, vbs. of, constr., 330. 2. 

requiés, decl., p. 41, foot-n..1; 78. 1. ¢. 

rés, decl., 72. 

Resisting, vbs. of, constr., 227, 319. d. 

Resolution of syllables in Prosody, 357. 

Resolving, verbs of, constr. (subjunc. or 
inf.), 331. d. 

restat, with ut, 332. a. 

restis, decl., 56. 4. 

Restriction in subjunctive clause, 320. d. 

Result, clauses of, 180. ¢, p. 343; Se- 
quence of tenses in, 287. ¢; infin. of, 
273. g. Subjunctive with relatives or 
ut, 319; negative result with ut n6n, 
etc., id. a, d. R.; result-clause equiva- 
lent to proviso, id. 4; with quémi- 
nus, id. ¢; with quin, id. d; of 
characteristic, 320; with expressions 
of existence and non-existence, id. a; 
with tinus and sOlus, id. 4; with 
comparatives, id. ¢; with dignus, etc., 
id. 7. Subst. clauses of result after 
faciG, etc., 332; as subject, id.a; after 
quam, id. 4; in exclamatory questions, 
id. ¢; tantum abest ut, id. d; 
thought as result, id. f 

Result, nouns, denoting, 163. ¢. 

réte, decl., 57. a. 

r6x, decl., 46. 

Rhetorical questions in ind. disc., 338. 

rhis, decl., 67. a. 

Rhythm, development of, Note, p. 402; 
nature of, 355. 

Rhythmical reading, 359. R. 

ri-, adj.-stems in, 84. a. 

ritii, abl. of manner, 248. R. 

riv4lis, decl., 57. 4 

Rivers, names of, gender, 29, I and a. 

ro-stems, decl. II., 38; adj.-stems, 82. 

rog6, constr. of, 239. c, and R.,d. N.; w. 
subjunc., 331. 

Roman method of pronunciation, 16. 








a: 


ee Se ee ae 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


Roman writers, Appendix, p. 439. 

Romance (or Romanic) languages, Ap- 
pendix, p. 437; comparative forms, id. 

Root, defined, 22, 157; of vbs., 117. I. N.; 
noun-stem treated as root, 123. d; roots 
ending in vowel, 123. 7; consciousness 
of roots lost in Lat., 22. N.; root used 
as stem, 123. ¢, 4 158; as word, p. 163. 

r6s, decl., 77. 6. 

rr-, as stem ending, 48. ¢ 

-rs, nouns in, 67. d@. 

rt-, stems in, decl., 87. 4. 

ruber, decl., 82. c. 

ruri, locative, 62, 258. d. 

ris, 67. 4,77. 6. a; constr., 258. a, 4, d. 


S changed to r, 11. a. 1; p. 26, foot.-n. 2; 
substituted for d or t, 11. a. 2; 8 final 
elided, 11. 4. 3; -S as sign of nom., 32. 
6, 38, 44, 72, 85. foot-n., p. 205; -s 
omitted in inscriptions, 38. N.; -8, 
noun-ending, decl. III., gend., 65. 4; 
S suppressed in verb-forms, 128. 3; 
in early Lat., 375. a. 

S- as stem-ending, 48. d, 60. d; p. 41, 
foot-n. 1; of adjs., 85. 6. N.; of com- 
paratives, 86. a; apparent S-stems, 
p. 26, foot-n. 2. 

8 as suffix of perfect, 124. 4; list of vbs. 
of conj. III. w. perf. in 8, 132. a. 

sacer, decl., 82. ¢; comp., gI. d. 

saepe, comp., 92. 

sal, decl., 77. 6. 

Salamis, decl., 63. a. 

saliiber, decl., 84. a. 

saliitem, 240. d. N. 2. 

salvé6, defective, 144. f 

sané quam, 334. ¢. 

sanguis, decl., 67. 4. 

Sanskrit forms, see notes, pp. 14, 26, 81, 
83, 433, 434- 

sapiéns, decl., 57. 2. 

Sapphic verse, 371. 6, 7. 

satag6, with gen., 223. 

satias, decl., p. 41. foot-n. 1. 

satis, comp., 92; compounds of, with 
dat., 227. e; non satis, 93. ¢; com- 
pounds of, w. dat., 227. ¢; satis 
est (satis habeS), with perf. infin., 
288. ¢. 

satur, genitive of, 41. 4; decl., 82. 4; 
comp., 91. d@. 

Saturnian verse, 374. @ 





479 


Saying, verbs of, constr., 330; in passive, 
id. a, 4, 336. 

sc preceding stem-vowel of verb, 123. 
b. I. 

scaber, decl., 82. c. 

Scanning, 359. 4, 356. N. 

scilicet, derivation, 148. N. 4. 

scin, contracted form for scisne, 13. ¢. 

Scipiadés, 37. 

scid, imperative of, 269. e. 

scisc6, constr., 331. 

scitd, scit6te, imperative forms, 128. ¢, 
269. é. ' 

-sc6 (inceptive), verbs ending in, 167. a, 

scrobs, decl., 54.2. — 

S6- or S6d-, insepar, prefix, 170. 3. 

86, reflexive, decl., 98. 2. ; use, 196; 
inter s6, 99. d. 

Second Conjugation, prin, parts., 122. c; 
pres. stem, how formed, 123. a; forma- 
tion of conj, II., 126. 4; paradigm, p. 
96; verbs of, 131; derivation, 166, 4. 

Second Declension, nouns, 38-43; accent 
of gen, and voc, of nouns in -ius, 19. d@. 2, 

Secondary accent, 19. 4 N. 

Secondary object, 239. 2. 

Secondary suffixes, defined, 159. 

Secondary tenses, 285; rule for use of, 
286; perf. def. more commonly sec- 
ondary, 287. a; perf, subj. in clauses of 
result used after, 287. ¢; hist. pres., id. 
é; imperf. and pluperf. subj., id. fg; 
present used as if secondary, by synesis, 
id. 2. 

secundum, 152. a; prep. use, 153. 

secundus, derivation, 94. foot-n. 

sectiris, decl., 56. 4, 57. a. 

secus, indecl. noun, 77. 1; use, 240. 4, 

secus (adv.), comp., 92. 

sectitus (as pres. part.), 290. 4. 

sed-, see S6-, 

sed compared with v6rum, etc., 156. &. 

sédés, decl., 59. , 

sedile, decl., 52. 

Selling, vbs. of, 252. d. 

sémentis, decl., 56. 4, 57. 3. 

Semi-deponents, 136. 

sémineci, defect., 87. f 

Semi-vowels, iand v (1), 4. 

senati, sen&tuos, forms of gen. in 
decl. IV., 70. 

senex, decl., 60. ¢, 61; adj. masc., 88, 3; 
comparison, 9I. ¢, 


480 


s6ns, as participle of esse, 119. a. 

Sentence, development, p. 163; defined, 
171; simple or compound, 180 (com- 
pare Note, p. 339); incomplete, 206. 

sentis, decl., 77. 7. 

Separation, dat. of, after comps. of ab, 
dé, ex, and after adim6, 229; abl., 
243; gen. for abl., 223. 4. 3, 243. 7. R. 

Sequence of tenses, 285-287; in ind. disc., 
336. B.; in conditional sentences, in 
ind. disc., 337. 3. 

sequester, decl., 78. 1. 3. 

sequitur, with ut, 332. a. 

sequor, conj., 135. 

séra nocte, 193. N. 

seriés, decl., 74. d. 

. Service, adjs. of, w. dat., 234. a. 

Service, dat. of, 233. a. with foot-n. 

Serving, verbs of, with dat., 227. 

servus (servos), decl., 38. 

séstertium, séstertius, 377-379; how 
written in cipher, 380. 

seu (Sive), 156. ¢, 315. ¢. 

Sharing, adjs. of, with gen., 218. a. 

Should (auxiliary), how expressed in Lat., 
111. 3, N. 

Showing, verbs of, with two accs., 239. a. 

-Si, perfect ending, 118. N. 

si, p. 320; w. subj. of wish, 267. 6. N. 1; si 
and its compounds, use, 304. a, N., 315; 
si ndn distinguished from nisi, 315. 
a; Sl= whether, 334. f; miror si, 
333- R- 

Sibilants, 3. 

sic, correl, with ut, 107, 319. R.; with si, 
304. 3. 

siem (sim), 119. 4. 

Significant endings, 161-164. 

silenti6, without preposition, 248. R. 

-Silis, adj.-ending, 164. m. 

silvester, decl., 34. a 

-sim, old form of perf. subj., 128. ¢. 3. 

similis, comparison, 89. 4; with gen, and 
dat., 234. d. 2. 

similiter, use, 234. @, N. 2. 

Simois, decl., 64. 

Simple sentences, 180, 

simul with abl., 261. 4, 

simul, simul atque (&c), 324. 

simul... simul, 208. d. 

sin, 304. a. N. 

sin&pi, indecl., 67. a. 

Singular, nouns defect. in, 77. 5. 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


Singularia tantum, 75. 

sinister, decl., 82. a. 

sin6, constr., 331. ¢. 

-8sid, noun-ending, 163. 4, 

siquis, decl.,105.d. 

-sis-, dropped in perf., 128. 4, 

sitis, decl., 52, cf. 56. a. 

Situation or direction, 235. 4. 

Sive (seu) ... SIVe, use, 156. ¢, 315. G 

Smell, verbs of, with acc., 237. ¢. 

-86, verbs in, 167. 2. 

-S6, old form of fut. perfect, 128. ¢. 3. 

socrus, gend., 62. a. 

sddé6s (si aud6s), 13. c, 136. a. 

sol, decl., 77. 6. 

soled, semi-dep., 136. 

solit6, with comp., 247. 3. 

solitus as pres, part., 290. 3. 

sdlus, decl., 83; with relative clause, 
320. b. 

Sonants, 2. 2, 3. 

-sor, see -tor. 

Sdracte, decl., 57. a. 

sordem, defect., 77. 5. 

Source, expressed by abl., 244. 

-s6ria, noun-ending, 164.7. 4; -S6rius, 
adj-ending, id. 2; -sG6rium, noun-end- 
ing, id. z. 5. 

Sospita, fem. adj. form, 85. ¢. 

Sounds, see Pronunciation. 

Space, extent of, expressed by acc., 257, - 

Sparing, verbs of, with dat., 227. 

sp6, with comp., 247. 2. 

Special verb-forms, 128. 

speciés, decl., 74. d. 

Specification, gen. of, with adjs., 218, ¢; 
acc. of, 240, c; abl. of, 253. 

specus, gend., 69. a. 

Spelling, variations of, 12. 

spé6s, decl., 72. N., p. 41. foot-n. 2, 

Spirants, 3. a. 

Spondaic verse, 362. a. 

Spondee, 356. J. 

spontis,-e, defect., 77. 3. 

Stanza or Strophe, 361. 

statud, without prep., 260. a; w.inf£ or 
subjunc., 331. 4. 

Statutes, fut. imv. in, 269. d. 3. 

ste for iste, etc., 100, d 

stella, decl:, 35. 

Stems, defined, 21, classified, 157; how 
formed from root, 23, 158, 159; how 
found in nouns, 32. a; &-stems, decl 


=”. 


a, — —— 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


L., 35; adjs., 81; O-stems, decl. II., 38 
and foot-n.; adjs., 81; in decl. III., 
mute stems, 44; liquid stems, 48 ; vowel 
stems, 51; U-stems, decl. IV., 68; in 
tu-, 71; of verb, 117. 1 and N.; Pres- 
ent, perfect, and supine, 121. Pres. 
stem, how formed, p. 86; from root, 
123; perf. stem, 124; supine stem, 125. 
Tenses arranged by stems, synopsis, 
127. 

Stem-building, 22, N. 

std, w. ablative, 254. 3. 

strigilis, decl., 57. 4. 

strix, decl., 54. 2. 

Structure of Latin sentences, 346. head-n. 

strué6s, decl., 59. 

studesd, w. dat., 227. ¢. 

Styx, decl., 67. ¢. 

suaded, w. dat., 227. 

sub, use, 152. ¢, 153; in comp., w. dat., 
228; of time, 259. 4. 

sub-, in comp. w. adjs., 93. ¢, 170. ¢; Ww. 
verbs, 170. a, ¢. N. 

subed, w. acc., 228. a. 

Subject, pp. 163, 164; defined, 172; how 
expressed, 173, 174; modified, 178; 
vb, agrees w., 204; two or more subjs., 
205; subj. omitted, 206; accusative, 
272; in indirect discourse, 336; posi- 
tion of subject, 343. 

Subject clauses (infin.), 270, 330; (sub- 
junc.), 331. head-n., 332. head-n. and 
a, ad. 

Subjective genitive, defined, 213. 1; use, 
214. 

Subjunctive mood, 108, 6; tenses wanting 
in, 110, a; how used and translated, 
112. 4, and N.; tenses how used, 115. 
d; vowel of pres. subj., 126, a. 1, 
6. 1,¢. 1, a, p. 120. Classification of 
uses, 265; general use, 265; hortatory 
subj., 266; optative subj., 267; delib- 
erative, 268; tenses of subj., 283-287; 
temporal clauses, 284; potential subj., 
311. a; subj. of modesty, id. 4; subj. 
in ind. disc., 336; in informal ind. disc., 
341; of integral part, 342. 

subolés, decl., 59. 

Subordinate clauses, defined, 180. 5; use, 
316-328; in ind. disc., 336, 339. 

Subordinate conjunctions, 154. 3, 155. 


é~t. 
Substance, gen. of, 214. ¢; abl. of, 244. 





481 


Substantive clauses, 329-334; nature and 
classes of, 329 (cf. p. 356); Infin. 
clauses, 330; clauses of Purpose, 331; 
of Result, 332; Indic. w. quod, 333; 
Indirect Questions, 334; adj. w. subst. 
clauses, 189. d. 

Substantive use of adjs., 188; of posses- 
sive prons., 190, @, 197. d. 

Substantive verb (esse), 172. N. 

subter, 152. ¢; use, 260. d. 

suétus, w. infin., 273. 4. 

Suffixes, 159; primary, list of, 160; sig- 
nificant, 161-164. 

sui, decl., 98. ¢; use, 196; w. gens of 
gerund, 208. a. 

sum, conj., 119; as copula, 172. N; as 
substantive vb., id.; omitted, 206. ¢; 
w. dat. of possession, 231; position, 
344. ¢, 7. 

summus, form, p. 56. foot-n.; (fof of), 
193. 

sunt qui, 320. a. 

suovetaurilia, 168. a. 

supellex, decl., 60. ¢. 

super, 152.¢; use, 153, 260. ¢; in comp., 
170. a; in comp., w. dat., 228, 

supera, defect., 82. d (cf. p. 56. foot-n.) ; 
comp., 91. 6; superi, id. 

superior, comparison, gi. 4. 

Superlative, suffix, 89. foot-n.; in-rimus, 
89. a; of adjs. in -lis, id. 4; with max- 
imé6, id. d; of eminence, 93. 4; with 
quam vel or tinus, id.; with quis- 
que, id. c; takes gender of partitive, 
187. e; denoting order, succession, 193. 

superstes, decl., 87. a, 3. 

Supine, noun of decl. IV., 71. a; use of, 
114. 6; stem, I2t. c; formation, 125, 
126. a-d (cf. p. 121); irregular forms 
of, conj. I., 130; conj. II., 131; allied 
with forms in -tor, 162, a, N. I; 
Former Supine, use of, 302; Latter, 
303; as abl. of specification, 253. a. 

suppetias, defect., 77. 2. 

supplex, decl., 87. 4, d. 

supplics, Ww. dat., 227. ¢, 3. 

supra, use of, 152. a, 153. 

-Stira, noun-ending, 163. 4. 

Surds, 2. @, 3. 

-suri6, vbs. in, 167. ¢. 

-8US, phonetic form of -tus, 71; noun- 
ending, 163. 4, 

sis, decl., 60. a, 61. 


482 


SuUSs, use, 196. 

Swearing, vbs. of, constr., 238. ¢, 330. 7. 

Syllables, rules for division of, 14; pure, 
open, etc., id. d, e; long and short, 18. 

Syneeresis, 347. ¢, d. R. 

Synalcepha, 359. ¢, R. 

Synchysis, 344. 2. 

Syncope, Io. ¢ 

Synecdoche, defined, see Glossary. 

Synecdochical accusative, 240. ¢. 

Synesis, defined, 182. a; in gend. and 
number, 187. d; in sequence of tenses, 
287. 2. 

Synopsis of tenses (amS), 127; of im- 
personal verbs, 145. 

Syntactic compounds, 170. 

SYNTAX, 171-346; historical develop- 
ment of, N., pp. 163, 164; outline, p. 
164. Important rules of Syntax, p. 
381 ff. 

Syntaxis and parataxis, p. 164. 


T changed to 8, 11. a. 2, 125; t for d 
(set, aput), 12. ¢; t preceding stem- 
vowel of vb., 123. 4.1; t-(S-), supine 
stem-ending, 125, 126. a. 2, b. 2, ¢. 2, d. 

-t, nouns in, gend., 65. c. 

ta, primary suffix, 160. ¢. 2, 162. 4, 

taedet, impersonal, 146. 4; constr., 221. 


taeter, decl., 82. c. 

Taking away, vbs. of, 229. 

Talent, value of, 382. 

talis, 105. 2, 106. 

talis ut, etc., 319. R. 

tam, correl. with quam, 107; correl. w. 
ut, 319. R. 

tamen, 156. 7, 2; as correlative, id. z. 

tametsi, concessive use, 156, z, 313. ¢. 

tamquam, in conditional clauses, 312; 
with primary tenses, id. R. 

tandem, in questions, 210. f 

tanti, gen. of value, 252. a,@; tantiest 
ut, 332. 

tanto following quant, 106, c, 250. R. 

tantum, with subjunctive of proviso, 
314. 

tantum abest ut, 332. d. 

tantus, 105. g, 106; tantus ut, 319. R. 

tar, primary suffix, 160. é. 

-tas, -tia, noun-endings, 163. ¢. 

Taste, verbs of, with acc., 237. ¢ 

t&t-, as stem-ending, 54. 2. 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


-te (enclitic), 99. 4 

Teaching, vbs. of (two accs.), 239. ¢ 

tegs, conj., p. 98. 

Telling, vbs. of, constr., 272, 330. 

Temporal clauses, defined, 180. ¢; 322- 
328; as protasis, 322; two uses, 323; 
w. postquam, etc., 324; w. Cum, 325; 
w. antequam and priusquam, 327; 
w. Gurh, dOnec, quoad, 328; re- 
placed by abl. absolute, 255. d. 

Temporal numerals, 97. 4; conjunctions, 
155. 2. 

tempus est abire, 208. N. 

Tendency, adjectives denoting, 164. 2, 

tener, decl., 82. 4, 

TENSES, 108. ¢; of passive voice, 111; ot 
participles, 113; classification, mean- 
ing and use, 115; of the ind., id. a-c; 
of the subj., id. d@; endings, 118; forma- 
tion of, 126. 4, 2; synopsis of, 127; Ind. 
for Eng. subjunctive, 264. 4; of Ind., 
264. a. 

TENSES, Syntax, 276-288; classified, p. 
291; Present tense, 276; Imperfect, 
277; Future, 278; of Completed action, 
279-281; Epistolary tenses, 282; of 
subjunctive, 283-285; sequence of, 285- 
287; tenses of the infinitive, 288; tense 
emphatic, 344. d@. 3; tenses of inf, in 
ind. disc., 336. A; tenses of subjunc. in 
ind. disc., 336. B; affected by refre- 
sentatid, id. a; in condition in ind, 
disc., 337- Notes on origin of syntax, 
PP. 274, 291. 

tenus, constr., w. gen., 223. ¢; w. abl., 
260, ¢; position, 263. N., 345. a. 

-ter, in alter, etc., p. 49. foot-n.; -ter, 
adv. ending, 148. J, ¢. 

teres, decl., 87. a; comp., 91. a. 

-terior, ending, p. 56. foot-n. 

Terminations of inflection, meaning of, 
20. 6; open and close affixes, 24. N; 
terminations of nouns, 34; of verbs, 
118, (See Endings.) 

-ternus, as adj.-ending, 164. ¢; as noun- 
ending, id. z. 12. 

terra marique, 258. d. 

terrester, decl., 84. a. 

-terus, ending, p. 56. foot-n. 

Tetrameter, Iambic, 366. a. 

Than, how expressed, 247. 

The as correlative, 106, c. and foot-n. 

Thesis and Arsis, 358 and foot-n. 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


Thinking, vbs. of, constr. with acc. and 
inf., 272, 330. 

Third conjugation, of verbs, prin, parts, 
122. ¢; pres. stem, how formed, 123. 4; 
formation, 123. 4, 126. c; paradigm, p. 


; in -i6, paradigm, p. 100; list, p. 


IoI. N.; list of verbs, with principal 
parts, 132; derivation of vbs. in -u6, 
166. ¢. 

Third declension, of nouns, 44-67; mute 
stems, 44-47; liquid stems, 48-50; 
vowel stems, 51-59; case forms; 56; 
peculiar forms, 60, 61; Greek nouns, 
63, 64; rules of gender, 65, 66; forms 
of inflection classified by stems, 67. 

Though, see Although. 

Thought, considered as result, 332. 7 

Threatening, vbs. of, 227, 330. 7 

this, see tis. 

ti, primary suffix, 160. ¢. 2. B. 

-tia (-ti6s), noun-ending, 163. ¢. 

-ticus, adj.-ending, 164. g. 

tigris, decl., 64. 

-tilis, adj.-ending, 164. . 

-tim, adverbs in, 56. a. 3, 148. N.e. 

Time (see Temporal Clauses), 264. a; 
284, 323. 

Time, advs. of, 149. 4. 

Time, duration of, 256 and 4; time when, 
256; corresponding to Eng. place, 259. 
a; time during or within which, w. 
ordinal, id. ¢; distance of time, id. d; 
abl, abs. to denote time, 255. and d. 1. 

Time, mode of reckoning, p. 425. 

timed, w. dat., or acc., 227. ¢; with sub- 
junctive, 331.7 

-timus, adj.-ending, p. 56, foot-n.; 164. e. 

-ti6, noun-ending, 160. 4, 163. 3. 

-ti6d (-si6), -tiira, -tis (-ttitis), noun- 
endings, 163. 4. 

etium, noun-ending, 163. £ 

-tivus, verbal adj.-ending, 164. 2, 

-t6,-it6, frequentative verbs in, 167. 4. 

To (so as to), 319. d. R. 

Too... t0, 320. ¢. 

-tor (-sor), -trix, nouns of agency in, 
162. a; used as adjs., 88. ¢, 188. d. 

-tSria, noun-ending, 164. ¢. 4. 

-t6rium, noun-ending, 160. 4, 164. #. 5. 

et6rius, adj.ending, 160, 4; as noun- 
ending, 164. A. 

tot, use, 106 and a. 

otidem, use, 106. a. 





483 


tdtus, decl., 83; nouns w., in abl. with- 
out prep. (place where), 258. f. 2. 

Towns, names of, gend., 29, 39.@; names 
of towns in -e, decl., 57. d; locative of, 
258. ¢. 2; as place from which, id. a; 
as place to which, 258. 4, 

tr-, stems in (pater, etc.), 48. c. 

tra, primary suffix, 160. o. 

tr&iciG, constr., 239. 4. R.; traéiectus 
lora, id. 

trans, 152. a; use, 153; comps. of, w. 
acc., 237. @; w. two accs., 229, b 
and R. 

Transitive adjectives, 218. 

Transitive verbs, 175. 4, 177; absolute 
use, 175. 4. N. 2; how translated, 177. 
c; w. dat., 225, 

Transposition of vowel and liquid, 9. d, 
124. a. N.; of consonants, 11. d, 

Trees, names of, gend., 29. 2. 

trés, decl. 94. ¢ 

tri-, stem-ending of nouns, 51. 3, 54. 1; 
of adjs., 84. a. 

Tribe, abl. of, 244. 5. N. 

Tribrach, 356. a. 

tribtilis, decl., 57. 4. 

tribus, gend., 69. a; decl., 70 a. 

tridéns, decl., 57.5. 

Trimeter, lambic, 365. 

Triptotes, 77. 4. 

trirémis, decl., 57. 4. 

-tris, adj.-ending, 164. ¢. 

triumph6d, w. abl., 245. a. 2. 

-trix, see -tor, 

-tr6, advs. in, p. 123. N. y. R. 

Trochaic verse, 360, 367. 

Trochee, 356. a; irrational, id. N., 369. 

-trum, noun-ending, 163. d. 

Trusting, vbs. of, constr., 227, 

tu, primary suffix, 160. ¢. 2. y. 

tf, decl., 98. 1 (see tiite, tiitimet), 

-tf, -sfi, supine-endings, 114. 4. 

-tiid6, -tiis, noun-endings, 163. 4, 

tull (tetuli), 139; derivation, id., foot- 
n.; quantity, 351. 4. Ex. 

-tum, -Sum, supine endings, 114. 5. 

tum, tunc, use, 149. 4; correl. w.Cum, 
107, 156 4. 

tum ... tum, 208. d. 

-tiira, -tfis, noun-ending, 163 2. 

-turid. vbs. in, 167. 4. 

turris, decl., 52 (cf. 56. 4). 

-turnus, adj.-ending, 164, ¢. 


484 


-tus, adj.-ending, 164. 7; noun-ending, 
71, 163. ¢. 

-tus, adv.-ending, 148. N. 7. 

tis (this), decl., 77. 6. 

tussis, decl., 56. a. 

tiite, 99. f; tiitimet, 99. 

Two accusatives, 239. 

Two datives, 233. a. 


U(v), as consonant, 4; after q, g, 8, 4. 
N. 3; not to follow u or v,7; u fore 
in conj. III., 126. ¢. 1. 

u, primary suffix, 160. ¢. I. 

u-stems, of nouns, decl. III., 60. a, 61; 
decl. IV., 68;-of verbs, p. 86, 123. d, 
166. a. 3, ¢. 

. Tiber, decl., 85. 4, 87. ¢. 

+ wbi, derivation, 148. N.8; in temporal 
clauses, 322, 324. 

ubiubi, 105. 2. 

-ubus, in dat. and abl. pl., decl. IV., 70. d. 

-uis (-uos), in gen., decl. IV., 68. N., 
70. a. 

-ilis, adj.-ending, 164. d. 

Gilius, decl., 83; use, 105. 2, 202. 4, c. 

Tilterior, comparison, 9I. a. 

Giltra, 152. a; use, 153; following noun, 
263. N. 

-ulus, diminutive ending, 164. a; verbal 
adj.-ending, id. 2. 

-Gim for -Arum, 36. d; for -Grum, 4o, 
¢; -tim in gen. pl. of personal prons., 
194. 6; -tim for -ium, decl. III., 59; 
in gen. pl. of adjs., 87. d; for -uum, 
decl. IV., 68. N., 70. ¢ 

Umbrian forms compared with Lat., p. 
435- 

Undertaking, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d. 

Unorganized forms of expression, p. 163 
and foot-n. 

unquam, use, Ios. 2. 

unt-, stem-ending, 63.¢. [w. superl., 93. 2. 

unus, decl. 83; meaning, 94. a, 95. 4; 

finus qui, w. subj., 320. 4. 

finus quisque, decl., 105. ¢; use, 202. d. 

uo, suffix, see Va. 

-uG6, vbs, in, 166. ¢. 

-110S, see -uis. 

-ur, nouns in, 65. ¢; -tir, -6ris, 67. 4; 
-tr, -tiris, -tr, -tiris, id. 

urbs, decl., 54; use in relations of place, 
258. 4. N. 3. 

Urging, vbs. of, with ut, 331. 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


-uri6, desiderative verbs in, 167. ¢. 

-urnus, adj.-ending, 164. ¢. 

-trus, fut. part. in, 113. 4, 293; w. fui, 
293. ¢, 308. @; in ind, questions, 334. 
a; -Urus fuisse, in ind. disc., 337. 4. 

-us, nom.-ending, decl, II., 28, 39; -us for 
-er in Gr. nouns, decl. II., 43. 4; -us 
nom.-ending in decl. III., 48. d; gend., 
65. ¢, 67. 6; decl. IV., 68; gend., 69; 
neut,-ending, 163. 2. 

-tis, Gr. nom.-ending, 63. ¢; -tis, -tidis, 
67. d; -ts, -titis, id. 

Use, adjs. of, constr., 234. 5. 

usquam, use, 105. 2, 

usque, w. acc., 261. a. 

sus (zeed), w. abl., 243. ¢. 

ut (uti), correlative w. ita, sic, 107; 
to denote concession, 266. ¢, 313. a; w. 
optative subjunc., 267. 4; in clauses of 
purp., 317; of result, 319; ut n6, id. a; 
331.¢.1.N.; utnGn, etc., 319.d. R.; ut 
temporal, 322, 324; verbs followed by 
clauses w. Ut, 331, 332; omission after 
certain verbs, 331. 4 R., z. N. 1 and 2; 
w. verbs of fearing, 331. / and foot-n. ; 
used elliptically in exclamations, 332. ¢. 

ut, utpote, quippe, w. relative clause, 
320. ¢. N. 1; W. CUM, 326. N. I. 

ut primum, 324. ; 

ut semel, 324. 

uter, interrog. and indef. pron., 104. g. 

titer, decl., 51. 4, 54. 1, 88. a. 

uterque, form and decl., 105. ¢; use, 
202. @; constr. in agreement and as 
partitive, 216. d. 

utervis, use, 202. ¢. 

uti, utinam, w. subj. of wish, 267. 4. 

iitilis, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. foot-n. 

utpote qui, 320. ¢. N. I. 

fitor, etc., w. abl., 249; w. acc., id. 4; 
gerundive use of, 294. ¢. N, 296. R. 

utrum ... an, 211 and d. 

utsi, constr., 312. and R. 

-litus, adj.ending, 164. 7 

utut, 105. 4. 

-uus, rare nom.-ending, decl. IV., 68. N., 
70. ; verbal adj.-ending, 164. 2. 

-ux (-ix), nouns in, 67. ¢. 


V (u), p. 1; 4, 7; omitted, 11. 4. 2; in 
tenuis, 16. N.; suffix of perf., 124. a, 
126. a. 2, d. 2, ¢ 2, d, p. 120; sup- 
pressed in perf., 128. a; list of vbs. in 


Index of Words and Subjects. 


conj. III. w. V in pert., 132. ¢; V often 
om, in perf. of eG and its comps., 
141. 6; V by syneresis, 347. ¢. 

Va, primary suffix, 160, @, 

vafer, decl., 82. ¢; comp., 91. d. 

vald6, use, 93. d; valdé quam, 334.4. 

Value, gen. of indefinite, 252. a. 

Value, measures of, 377-380. 

vannus, gend., 39. a. 

vapul6, neutral passive, 136. 4. - 

Variable nouns, 78, 79 (cf. 74. 4; p. 41. 
foot-n. 1). 

Variations, see Phonetic Variations and 
Inherited Differences, 

Variations of spelling, 12. 

vas, decl., 77. 6. 

vas, decl., 60. d; 78. 1. 3. 

vatés, decl., 59. 

-ve, vel, use, 156. c, 212, R. 

vel (see -vée), w, superl., 93. 3. 

velim, vellem, subj. of modesty, 311. 3. 

velim, vellem, w. subjunc. (= oe ) 
267. ¢ (=imv.), 269. 2. 

vellem, see velim. 

veluti, ‘velutsi, 312. 

véned (vénum 6e6), 136. 4, 258. 4. R. 

vénum, defect., 77. 3 (cf. véned). 

vénerat = aderat, 270. ¢. 

VERBS, Etymology. Verb, defined, 25. d; 
inflectibn, 108-110; noun and adj. 
forms of, 109; signification, of forms, 
III-1I15; personal endings, 116; forms 
of the verb, 117, 118 (note on origin 
and hist. of vb.-forms, pp. 119-121) ; 
table of endings, 118; the three stems, 
121; influence of analogy, I2I, N. 2 
regular verbs, 122~136; the four conju- 
gations, 122 and a; prin. parts of, 122. 4, 
¢; mixed verbs, id. d; deponents, 135; 
semi-deponents, 136; irregular verbs, 
137-142; defective, 143, 144; imper- 
sonal, 145, 146; periphrastic forms, 
147; compound verbs, 170; vowels in 
comp. verbs, 170.@. N. Derivation of 
verbs, 165-167. 

VERBS, Syntax. Subject implied in end- 
ing, 174. 2; rules of agreement, 204- 
206; verb omitted, 206.¢; rules of Syn- 
tax, 264-342. Cases w. vbs., see under 
Accusative, etc. Position of verb, 343, 
344.d, 7. {See under the names of the 
Moods, etc.) 

Verba sentiendi et déclarandi, 272, 330, 





485 
336; passive use of, 272. R., 330. ac} 
in poets and later writers, id. a. , 

Verbal nouns with dat., 227. a. 

Verbal nouns and adjs. with reflexive, 
196. a. 

Verbal adjectives, 164. +f; in -&x, with 
gen., 218, 4, 

Verbal roots, 157. I. 

vereor, with gen., 223. 4.1; w. subjunc., 
331. f- 

veritus, as pres. part., 290. b. 

vérd, 156. 6, 2; in answers, 212. a; posi- 
tion of, 345. 3. 

Verse, 359. 

Versification, 359-375; forms of verse, 
360. 

versus, position of, 345. a. 

verto, constr., 252. ¢. 

verity, gend., 69. 4; decl., 70. d. 

vérum or véro, use, 156. 4, &. 

vescor, with abl., 249; w. acc., id. 3; 
gerundive, 294. ¢. N., 296. R. 

vesper, decl., 41. 4, 
vesperi (loc.), 41. 4, 258. d. 

vester, decl., 82, ¢ (see p. 64). 

vestri as obj. gen., 99. ¢, 194. 3. 

vestriim as part. gen., 99. 4, 194. 4, cf. N. 

veto, w. acc. and inf., 271. 4, 330. 2, and 
b. 2. 

vetus, decl., 
89. a, OI. a. 

-vi in perfect, 118, N. 

via, abl. of manner, 248. R. 

vicis, decl., 77. 7. 

vicem, adverbial use of, 240. 4, 

vicinus, with gen., 218. d. 

vid6licet, derivation, 148. N. 9 

video ut, 331. 

videor, with dat., 232. ¢. 

vin (visne), 13. ¢. 

vir, decl., 38, 41. 3. 

virg6G, decl., 49. 

virus, gender of, 39. 4. 

vis, stem, 54. 2; decl., 61. 

viscera, 79. ¢. 

visG, 167. ¢. 

vocalis, decl., 57. 4. 

VOCATIVE, 31. ¢; form, 33. 2. 3; in I of 
nouns in -ius, decl. II., 40. ¢c, d; of 
adjs. in -ius, 81. a; of Greek nouns, 
43.5. Syntax, 241. 

Voices, 108. a, 111; middle voice, id. a, 
£18. N., 135. ¢e 


85. 4, 87. ¢; comparison, 


486 


vol6, and comps., conj., 138; w. infin., 
271 and N.; part. of, as dat. of reference, 
235. ¢; w. perf. part., 288. d and N., 292. 
d. N.; w. subj. or inf, 331. 4 and N. 

volucer, decl., 84. a. 

volucris, decl., 59. 

-volus, adj. in, comparison, 89. é 

Vos, 98. I. 

voster, etc., see vester, 

voti damnatus, 220. a, 

Vowels, 1; long and short, how marked, 
5; vowels and consonants form scale, 
id. N.; inherited differences in, 9; con- 
traction, 10. 8; syncope, id. ¢; inser- 
tion, id. d; shortening, id. ¢; dissimi- 
lation, II. ¢; pronunciation, 16, 17; 
long and short, 18; quantity of final 
vowels in case-endings, 33. ¢; vowel 
modified in noun-stems, decl. III., 45; 
lengthened in root, 123. ¢ I, 124. d, 
158. 4. and N.; list of vbs. w. vowel- 
lengthening in perf., conj. III., 132. ¢. 

Vowel-changes, Io, 

Vowel-roots of verbs, 126. a, 3. 

Vowel-suffixes (primary), 160. ¢. 1. 

Vowel-stems, decl. III., 51-59; gend., 
66. a; noun-forms, 67. a; of verbs, 
165 and foot-n. 

vulgus (volgus), gend., 39. 4. 

-vus, verbal adj.-ending, 164. 2. 


W, not in Latin alphabet, p. x. 
Want, words of, with abl., 243; with gen., 


223, 243. ft 





Index of Words and Subjects. 


Way by which (abl.), 258. g. 

Weight, measures of, 382. 

Whole, gen. of, 216; numbers expressing 
the whole, 216, @. 

Wills, fut. imv. in, 269. @. 3. 

Winds, gender of names of, 29, 

Wish, expressed by subj., 267; as a 
condition, 310. 4; wish in informal 
ind. disc., 341. 3. 

Wishing, verbs of, with inf., 288. @ (cf. 
271. a); with subst. clause of purp., 
317. @, 331. 6; with acc. and infin., 
330- 3, 331. 4 

Without, with verbal noun, 292. N. 1. 

Women, names of, 80, ¢. 

Words, formation of, 157-170; arrange- 
ment of, 343-346. 

Would (Eng. auxiliary), how expressed 
in Lat., 112. 0. N. 


X, nom.-ending, 44; gend., 65. 5,67. e; 
x from 8, in verbs, 132. @. 


Y, of Greek origin, p. 1. 

-y, noun-ending, gend., 65. ¢. 

YA, verb-root. 

ya (primary suffix), 160. x. 

Year, p. 425; months of, pp. 425, 426; 
date, 259. ¢, 276. 

Yes in Lat., 212, 

-ys, nom. “ending, 63. 2, 64, 67. z gend., 
65. 4; quantity, 348. 9. 


Z, of Greek origin, p. 1, 6. N. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


USED IN CITING AUTHORS ‘AND THEIR WORKS. 


Appuleius: 
Met., Metamorphoses. 
Ceesar: 
B. C., Bellum Civile. 
B. G., Bellum Gallicum. 
B. Afr., Bellum Africa- 
num. 
Cato: 
R. R., De Re Rustica. 
Catull., Catullus, 
Cic., Cicero: 
Ac., Acad., Academica, 
Arch., pro Archia, 
Att., ad Atticum, 
Caec., pro Caecina, 
Cael., gro M. Caelio. 
Cat., in Catilinam, 
Clu., pro Cluentio, 
C. M., Cat. Maj., Cato 
Major. 
Inv., de /nventione. 
Deiot., 270 Deiotaro, 
De Or., de Oratore. 
Div., de Divinatione. 
Caecil., Divinatio in Cae- 
cilium, 
Fam., ad Familiares, 
Fat., de Fato. 
Fin., de Finibus. 
Flac., pro Flacco. 
Font., pro M. Fonteio, 





Lig., pro Ligario. 

Manil., pro Lege Manilia. 

Mare., 70 Marcello. 

Mil., pro Milone. 

Mur., pro Murena. 

N. D., de Natura Deo- 
TUM, 

Off., de Officiis. 

Or., Orator. 

Par., Paradoxa, 

Part, Or., de Partitione 
Oratoria, 

Phil., PAilippicae. 

Planc., pro Plancio. 

Pis., 22 Pisonem, 

Quinct., Aro Quinctio. 

Q. Fr., ad Q. Fratrem. 

Rabir., pro Rabirio. 

Rep., de Republica. 

Rosc, Am., gro Roscio 
Amerino, 

Rosc, Com., pro Roscio 
Comoedo. 

Sest., Aro Sestio, 

Sulla, p70 Sulla, 

Top., Topica. 

Tusc., Tusculanae Dis- 
putationes. 

Univ., de Universo, 

Vatin., in Vatinium. 

Verr., in Verrem, 


Ad. Her,, [ad Heren- 
nium.) 

Inv. R., de Inventione 
Rhetorica. 

Lael., Laelius (de Ami- 
citia). 

Legg., de Legibus. 

Leg. Agr., de Lege Agra- 
ria, 





Enn., Ennius. 

Gell., A. Gellius. 

Hor., Horace: 
A. P., De Arte Poetica. 
Ep., Zpistulae. - 
Epod., Zpodes. 
Od., Odes. 
Sat., Satires. 

Juy., Juvenal, 





Liv., Livy. 
Lucr., Lucretius, 
Mart., Martial. 
Nepos. 
Ov., Ovid: 
F., Fasti. 
M., Metamorphoses. 
Epist. ex P., Zpistulae ex 
Ponto. 
Trist., 7ristia, 
Pers., Persius. 
Phaed., Phaedrus, 
Plaut., Plautus, 
Am., Amphitruo. 
Asin., Asinaria, 
Aul., Aulularia, 
Bac., Bacchides, 
Capt., Captivi. 
Cist., Cistellaria, 
Cure., Curculio. 
Epid., Zpidicus, 
Merc., Mercator. 
Mil., Aviles Gloriosus, 
Most., Mostellaria, 
Pers., Per'sa. 
Poen., Poenulus. 
Ps., Pseud., Pseudolus. 
Rud., Rudens. 
Stich., Stichus. 
Tr., Trin., Zrinummus. 
Truc., 7ruculentus. 
Plin., Pliny, senior: 
H.N., Historia Naturalis, 
Plin., Pliny, junior: 
Ep., Zpistulae. 
Prop., Propertius. 
Q. C., Q. Curtius. 
Quint., Quintilian. 
Sall., Sallust: 
Cat., Catilina. 


488 


Ep. Mithrid., Zpistula 
Mithridatis. 
Jug., Fugurtha. 
Sen., Seneca: 
Ep., Zpistulae. 
Herc. Oet., Hercules Oe- 
taeus. 
.Q.N., Quaestiones Natu- 
rales, 


Abbreviations Used. 


Sil. It., Silius Italicus. 
Suet., Suetonius. 
Tac., Tacitus : 
Agr., Agricola, 
A., Ann., Aznales, 
H., Historiae, 
Ter., Terence: 
Ad., Adelphi. 








And., Andria. 


Eun., Zunuchus. 
Heaut., Heautontimoru- 
menos. 
Hec., Hecyra. 
Ph., Phormio. 
Virg., Virgil: 
fin., Aineid. 
E., Eclogae. 
G., Georgica. 


ae 


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